Theme 11
Families Rosaceae,Fabaceae:description of families, morfological description and determination of kinds
Legume Family (Fabaceae)
Family includes Bob about 18 thousand kinds which are widespread almost by all Land.
A legume is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or a fruit of these specific plants. A legume fruit is a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. A commoame for this type of fruit is a “pod”, although pod is also applied to a few other fruit types, such as vanilla. Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, and peanuts.
Legume plants are noteworthy for their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, thanks to a symbiotic relationship with certain bacteria known as rhizobia found in root nodules of these plants. The ability to form this symbiosis reduces fertilizer costs for farmers and gardeners who grow legumes, and allows legumes to be used in a crop rotation to replenish soil that has been depleted of nitrogen.
Legume seed and foliage have a comparatively higher protein content thaon-legume material, probably due to the additional nitrogen that legumes receive through nitrogen-fixation symbiosis. This high protein content makes them desirable crops in agriculture
GROWTH FORM: grassy plants, rarer bushes, lianas or trees.
Underground organs: The taproot system with bacteriorhiza (large range of other organisms including bacteria also closely associate with roots) (1).
Leaves: mainly various compound.
Inflorescence: more raceme (6), rarely head or umbrella.
Flowers: papillionaceous, bisexual, zygomorphic (rarer actinomorphous), with a double perianth. A bowl is 5-membership. Androcey (9) consists of 10 stamens: one it is outweighed free, other accrete to the half. Ginecey is monocarpous (10).
: Legume is dry dehiscens pod that splists on two sides on sides (11). The formed seed do not have endosperm.
Senna (Cassia angustifolia) is a small bush with pinnately compound leaves and yellow flowers.
Several species of Cassia contribute to the drug of commerce, and were comprised in a single species by Linnaeus under the name of Cassia Senna. Since his day, the subject has been more fully investigated, and it is known that several countries utilize the leaves of their own indigenous varieties in the same way. The two most widely exported and officially recognized are C. acutifolia and C. angustifolia (
Senna is an Arabiaame, and the drug was first brought into use by the Arabian physicians Serapion and Mesue, and Achiarius was the first of the Greeks to notice it. He recommends not the leaves but the fruit, and Mesue also prefers the pods to the leaves, thinking them more powerful, though they are actually less so, but they do not cause griping.
The purgative constituents are closely allied to those of Aloes and Rhubarb, the activities of the drug being largely due to anthraquinone derivatives and their glucosides. It contains rhein, aloe-emedin, kaempferol, isormamnetin, both free and as glucosides together with myricyl alcohol, etc. The ash amounts to about 8 per cent, consisting chiefly of earthy and ashy carbonates.
The active purgative principle was discovered in 1866. It is a glucoside of weak acid character, and was named Cathartic Acid. By boiling its alcoholic solution with acids it yields Cathartogenic Acid and sugar. There were also found Chrysophanic Acid, Sennacrol and Sennapicrin, and a peculiar non-fermentable saccharine principle which was named Cathartomannite or Sennit.
Purgative. Its action being chiefly on the lower bowel, it is especially suitable in habitual costiveness. It increases the peristaltic movements of the colon by its local action upon the intestinal wall. Its active principle must pass out of the system in the secretions unaltered, for when Senna is taken by nurses, the suckling infant becomes purged. It acts neither as a sedative nor as a refrigerant, but has a slight, stimulating influence. In addition to the nauseating taste, it is apt to cause sickness, and griping pains, so that few can take it alone; but these characteristics can be overcome or removed, when it is well adapted for children, elderly persons, and delicate women. The coloring matter is absorbable, and twenty or thirty minutes after the ingestion of the drug it appears in the urine, and may be recognized by a red color on the addition of ammonia.
The addition of cloves, ginger, cinnamon, or other aromatics are excellent correctives of the nauseous effects. A teaspoonful of cream of tartar to a teacupful of the decoction of infusion of Senna, is a mild and pleasant cathartic, well suited for women if required soon after delivery. Some practitioners add neutral laxative salts, or saccharine and aromatic substances. The purgative effect is increased by the addition of pure bitters; the decoction of guaiacum is said to answer a similar purpose. Senna is contraindicated in an inflammatory condition of the alimentary canal, hemorrhoids, prolapsus, ani, etc. The well-known ‘black draught’ is a combination of Senna and Gentian, with any aromatic, as cardamom or coriander seeds, or the rind of the Seville orange. The term ‘black draught,’ it is stated, should never be used, as mistakes have been made in reading the prescriptions, and ‘black drop’ or vinegar of opium has been given instead, several deaths having been caused in this way.
Spiny restharrow (Ononis arvensis) is a large genus of perennial herbs and shrubs from the legume family Fabaceae. Is an erect with solitary, dark pink pea-like flowers and trifoliate leaves. As its name suggests, it also has spines. It can also be told apart by the absence of rhizomes, more erect habit, darker flowers and the presence of two lines of hairs up the stem as opposed to hairs all round. Spiny rest-harrow is in flower from July to September and is pollinated by bees.
The members of this genus are often called restharrows as some species are arable weeds whose tough stems would stop the harrow. They are natively distributed in Europe.
In herbalism restharrow is used to treat bladder and kidney problems and water retention.
The active ingredients in restharrow are essential oils, flavonoid–glycosides, and tannins.
Restharrows are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Grey Pug and Coleophora ononidella (feeds exclusively on O. arvensis).
USES: root are diuretic, cholagogum means.
Termopsis lanceolate (Thermopsis lanceolata)
Description: This long-lived, easily grown perennial grows to
Notes: Good plant for border or foundation plantings. Does not like its roots disturbed. May get a second flowering by cutting back flowering spikes after blooming if growing season is long enough.
Cultivation: For maximum freshness, please keep seed refrigerated in its original packaging until it is time to plant. Will tolerate many conditions but does best in sun with a loamy soil. Sow seeds at 10-
Active ingredients: alkaloid
USES: herb as expectorant means and seed use for poisonings, shock states.
Liquorices or sweet root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) is a grassy perennial with pinnately compound leaves, covered by grandular hairs. Has the well developed rhizome and roots. Flowers are violet, collected in raceme. The fruit is an oblong pod, 2–3 centimetres (about
Liquorice grows best in deep, fertile, well-drained soils, with full sun, and is harvested in the autumn two to three years after planting.
In modern times, liquorice extract is produced by chemically boiling liquorice root and subsequently evaporating most of the water. In fact, the name ‘liquorice’/’licorice’ is derived (via the Old French licoresse), from the Ancient Greek glukurrhiza, meaning ‘sweet root’. Liquorice extract is traded both in solid and syrup form. Its active principle is glycyrrhizin, a sweetener more than 50 times as sweet as sucrose which also has pharmaceutical effects.
Main article: Liquorice (confectionery)
Liquorice flavour is found in a wide variety of liquorice candies. The most popular in the United Kingdom are liquorice allsorts. In continental Europe, however, far stronger, saltier candies are preferred. It should be noted, though, that in most of these candies the taste is reinforced by aniseed oil, and the actual content of liquorice is very low. However, in the Netherlands, where liquorice candy (“drop”) is one of the most popular forms of sweets, only a few of the many forms that are sold contain aniseed (although mixing it with mint, menthol or with laurel is popular, and mixing it with ammonium chloride creates the very popular salty liquorice known in Dutch as zoute drop.)
Pontefract in Yorkshire was the first place where liquorice mixed with sugar began to be used as a sweet in the same way it is in the modern day. Pontefract Cakes were originally made there. In Yorkshire and
Liquorice flavoring is also used in soft drinks, and is in some herbal teas where it provides a sweet aftertaste. The flavour is common in medicines to disguise unpleasant flavours. Dutch youth often make their own “dropwater” (liquorice water) by putting a few pieces of laurel liquorice and a piece of liquorice root in a bottle with water and then shake it to a frothy liquid. Also popular in the
Liquorice root
Liquorice is popular in Italy (particularly in the South) and Spain in its natural form. The root of the plant is simply dug up, washed and chewed as mouth-freshener. Throughout
Chinese cuisine uses liquorice as a culinary spice for savoury foods. It is often employed to flavour broths and foods simmered in soy sauce.
Other herbs and spices of similar flavour include anise, star anise, tarragon, and fennel.
Medicinal use
Glycyrrhiza glabra from Koehler’s Medicinal-Plants
Powdered liquorice root is an effective expectorant, and has been used for this purpose since ancient times, especially in Ayurvedic medicine where it is also used in tooth powders and is known as Jastimadhu. Modern cough syrups often include liquorice extract as an ingredient. Additionally, liquorice may be useful in conventional and naturopathic medicine for both mouth ulcers[10] and peptic ulcers. Non-prescription aphthous ulcer treatment CankerMelts incorporates glycyrrhiza in a dissolving adherent troche. Liquorice is also a mild laxative and may be used as a topical antiviral agent for shingles, ophthalmic, oral or genital herpes.
Liquorice affects the body’s endocrine system as it contains isoflavones (phytoestrogens). It can lower the amount of serum testosterone, but whether it affects the amount of free testosterone is unclear. Consuming licorice can prevent hyperkalemia. Large doses of glycyrrhizinic acid and glycyrrhetinic acid in liquorice extract can lead to hypokalemia and serious increases in blood pressure, a syndrome known as apparent mineralocorticoid excess. These side effects stem from the inhibition of the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (type 2) and subsequent increase in activity of cortisol on the kidney. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase normally inactivates cortisol in the kidney; thus, liquorice’s inhibition of this enzyme makes the concentration of cortisol appear to increase. Cortisol acts at the same receptor as the hormone aldosterone in the kidney and the effects mimic aldosterone excess, although aldosterone remains low or normal during liquorice overdose. To decrease the chances of these serious side effects, deglycyrrhizinated liquorice preparations are available. The disabling of similar enzymes in the gut by glycyrrhizinic acid and glycyrrhetinic acid also causes increased mucus and decreased acid secretion. It inhibits Helicobacter pylori, is used as an aid for healing stomach and duodenal ulcers, and in moderate amounts may soothe an upset stomach. Liquorice can be used to treat ileitis, leaky gut syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome and Crohn’s disease as it is antispasmodic in the bowels.
Liquorice is an adaptogen which helps reregulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. It can also be used for auto-immune conditions including lupus, scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis and animal dander allergies.[13]
In traditional Chinese medicine, liquorice is commonly used in herbal formulae to “harmonize” the other ingredients in the formula and to carry the formula into all 12 of the regular meridians[14] and to relieve a spasmodic cough.
In traditional American herbalism it is used in the Hoxsey anti-cancer formula.
The compounded carbenoxolone is derived from liquorice. Studies indicate it may inhibit an enzyme in the brain that is involved in making stress-related hormones, which have been associated with age-related mental decline.[15]
Uses with tobacco
A significant amount of liquorice production goes toward flavouring, sweetening and conditioning tobacco products. Liquorice adds a mellow, sweet woody flavour, and it enhances the taste of tobacco. The burning liquorice also generates some toxins found in the smoke, and the glycyrrhizin expands the airways, which allows users to inhale more smoke.
Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis). This introduced annual or biennial plant is 2-7′ tall. Larger plants branch frequently and are somewhat bushy in appearance, while shorter plants are less branched and rather lanky. The stems are usually more or less erect, although sometimes they sprawl across the ground. They are glabrous, furrowed, and angular; sometimes the lower stems are ribbed light red. The alternate compound leaves are trifoliate and hairless. Each leaflet is about ¾” long and ¼” across; it is oblong, oblanceolate, or obovate in shape, and dentate along the middle or upper margin. The terminal leaflet has a short petiolule (stalk at its base), while the lateral leaflets are nearly sessile. The petiole of each compound leaf is about ½” long; there are a pair of small linear stipules at its base.
Spike-like racemes of yellow flowers are abundantly produced from the axils of the middle to upper leaves, while the upper stems eventually terminate in such racemes. Each raceme is up to 6″ long and has dozens of flowers. These flowers are loosely arranged along the raceme and somewhat drooping. They may occur along one or two sides of the raceme, or in whorls. Each flower is about 1/3″ long and has a tendency to droop downward from the raceme, although curving upward toward its tip. The corolla has 5 yellow petals and is rather slender, consisting of a standard, keel, and two side petals. The tubular calyx is light green and has 5 pointed teeth. The blooming period can occur from late spring to early fall, peaking during early to mid-summer; a colony of plants will bloom for about 2 months. There is a mild floral fragrance. Each flower is replaced by a small seedpod with a beak that is flattened and contains 1-2 seeds. There are usually transverse ridges on each side that are somewhat curved. The tannish yellow seeds are somewhat flattened and ovoid-reniform in shape. Yellow Sweet Clover spreads by reseeding itself, and it often forms colonies at favorable sites. The sweet hay-like aroma of the foliage is caused by coumarin.
Cultivation: The preference is full or partial sun, moist to slightly dry conditions, and a somewhat heavy clay-loam soil. The mature size of this plant is highly variable, depending on moisture availability and the fertility of the soil. Its adds nitrogen to the soil by forming a symbiotic association with rhizobium bacteria.
Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is an herbaceous annual plant domesticated independently in ancient Mesoamerica and the Andes, and now grown worldwide for its edible bean, popular both dry and as a green bean. The leaf is occasionally used as a leaf vegetable, and the straw is used for fodder. Bush varieties form erect bushes 20–60 cm tall. All varieties bear alternate, green or purple leaves, divided into three oval, smooth-edged leaflets, each 6–15 cm long and 3–11 cm wide. The white, pink, or purple flowers are about
The Rosaceae family
The Rosaceae or rose family is a large family of plants, with about 3,000-4,000 species in 100-160 genera. Traditionally it has been divided into four subfamilies: Rosoideae, Spiraeoideae, Maloideae, and Amygdaloideae. These subfamilies are primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits, although this approach is not followed universally. Recent work has identified that the traditional four subfamilies are not all monophyletic, but the structure of the family is still awaiting complete resolution.
Stems: there are straight (apple tree), creeping (strawberries).
Leaves are simple or compound, arrangement leaves on the stem – alternate.
Flowers are actinomorphous, bisexual, from 5-, rarer by a 4-membership double perianth. A bowl is sometimes with a subbowl (strawberries are forest). Stamens much. Ginecey is different. An ovary can be hypo- or epigynous. The flowers also have 5-4 sepals, usually four nectar glands, and many stamens. Ovary: epigynous or hypogynous
Inflorescences: raceme (European bird cherry), umbrel (hawthorn, cherry), corymb (apple-tree), compound corymb (rowan-tree) and other.
Fruit: The fruits of the Rosaceae come in varieties. The most common is a drupe but there are many others. Apples, pears, quinces, and most other members of the Maloideae are pomes, but some are capsules such as in Lindleya. The fruit of a strawberry is an achene held by a red ripe peg. Pomes and the strawberry are false fruits, while drupes are true fruits. Most fruits of the family are edible and are very important in flavoring such as strawberries, cherries and apples. Almonds are raised for their stones which are used as smoked or salted nuts. Apples and strawberries are hybrids of different species in the same genus.
Dog rose (
Rose hips of some species, especially Rosa canina (Dog Rose) and R. majalis, have been used as a source of Vitamin C. Rose hips are commonly used as an herbal tea, often blended with hibiscus and as an oil
. They can also be used to make jam, jelly, marmalade and wine. Rose hip soup, “nyponsoppa,” is especially popular in Sweden. Rhodomel, a type of mead, is made with rose hips.
Uses: hip fruit – antiscorbuticum, tonicum, cholagogum means. This plants is melliferous and decorative. Rose hip powder is a remedy for rheumatoid arthritis. Rose hips from the dog rose have antioxidant values that far exceed other berries such as blueberries.
Cinnamon rose (Rosa majalis) is a species of deciduous shrubs in the genus Rosa, native to forests of Europe and Siberia. It grows to
Flowers are large, bisexual. Fruit – hip, spherical, red .
Uses: for as vitamin, atherosclerosis, hypertensive illness, anaemia, goitre, radiation irradiation, malignant tumours, ulcerous illness of stomach and duodenum, bleeding, hemorragic diathesis, haemophilia, bronchial asthma, gingivitises.
Crataegus sanguinea (commoames Redhaw Hawthorn or Siberian hawthorn). They are shrubs and small trees growing to 5-
Uses: leaves, flowers and fruit show cardioactive, desensitizing activity, spasmolytic and sedative effect.
Hawthorn is also used as an aid to lower blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and treat some heart related diseases.
Strawberries (Fragaria of vesca) – (commonly known as Woodland Strawberry) is a herbaceous perennial plants that have compound leaves with three hairy, sawtooth edged leaflets. The flowers are white and grow in clusters on thin stalks, bisexual, on long thin peduncles, have for 5 white petals. Stamens and pestles much, they are placed on a protuberant receptacle. Flowers in May – June. Fruit – a bright red berry flagged. Fruit is pseudocarp (strawberry). In addition to the seeds produced by these flowering plants, strawberries spread by stolons as they get older.
Typical habitat is along trails and roadsides, embankments, hillsides, stone- and gravel-laid paths and roads, meadows, young woodlands, sparse forest, woodland edges, and clearings. Often plants can be found where they do not get sufficient light to form fruit. In the southern part of its range, it can only grow in shady areas; further north it tolerates more sun. It is tolerant of a variety of moisture levels (except very wet or dry conditions).[1] It can survive mild fires and/or establish itself after fires.
Although F. vesca primarily propagates via runners, viable seeds are also found in soil seed banks and seem to germinate when the soil is disturbed (away from existing populations of F. vesca).
Its leaves serve as significant food source for a variety of ungulates, such as mule deer and elk, and the fruit are eaten by a variety of mammals and birds that also help to distribute the seeds in their droppings.
There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the Garden strawberry.
Cultivation and uses
Evidence from archaeological excavations suggests that Fragaria vesca has been consumed by humans since the Stone Age. The woodland strawberry was first cultivated in ancient Persia where farmers knew the fruit as Toot Farangi. Its seeds were later taken along the Silk Road towards the far East and to Europe where it was widely cultivated until the 18th century, when it began to be replaced by the garden strawberry, (Fragaria × ananassa), which has much larger fruit and showed greater variation, making them better suited for further breeding.
Woodland strawberry fruit is strongly flavored, and is still collected and grown for domestic use and on a small scale commercially for the use of gourmets and as an ingredient for commercial jam, sauces, liqueurs, cosmetics and alternative medicine. In
Most of the cultivated varieties have a long flowering period (and have been considered by botanists as belonging to Fragaria vesca var. vesca ssp. semperflorens). They are usually called alpine strawberries. They either form runners or multiple crowns in a cluster, fruit over a very long period with larger fruit than the common wood strawberry, and are usually propagated by seeds or division of the plants. The type in cultivation is usually everbearing and produces few runners. Large-fruiting forms are known since the 18th century and were called “Fressant” in
Plants tend to lose vigour after a few years due to their abundant fruiting and flowering with final decline caused by viral diseases. Cultivars that form stolons are often used as groundcover, while cultivars that do not may be used as border plants. Some cultivars are bred for their ornamental value. Hybrids, Fragaria × vescana, have been created from crosses between woodland strawberry and garden strawberry. Hybrids between the woodland strawberry and the European species Fragaria viridis were in cultivation until around 1850, but are now lost.
Fragaria vesca is sometimes used as an herbal medicine; an herbal tea made from the leaves, stems, and flowers is believed to aid in the treatment of diarrhea.
Useful components: Flavonoids, tannins, triterpene alcohols, citral oil, essential oils, vitamin C, minerals (magnesium, zinc, manganese, calcium, iron).
Uses: The leaves and the fruit – diuretic, abstringens and tonic, cholagogum means. The fruits are delicious and foods.
Leaves and roots were used in treatments of gum disease. Today, the plant is used in homeopathic medicine for different ailments. Leaves are used as an astringent, in cases of sore throats, cuts, burns and bruises. Tea made from the leaves is recommended in case of diarrhea. Fruit is believed to have diuretic and cooling properties. It is usually used in treatment of arthritis, tuberculosis, gout and rheumatism. The tincture made from the leaves is useful in case of gingivitis.
. Some homeopathic medicine practitioners believe that they make a good astringent and a diuretic. Because of its use as an astringent, some practitioners use the leaves of fragaria vesca to treat sore throats and to ease the pain associated with minor cuts and burns. In addition, many practitioners recommend that people use the leaves to treat dysentery and diarrhea. The leaves are usually infused with water in the form of tea.
RASPBERRY – (Rubus idaeus L). is a perennial plant which bears biennial stems (“canes”) from the perennial root system. In its first year, a new stem grows vigorously to its full height of 1.5-
The flowers are produced in late spring on short racemes on the tips of these side shoots, each flower with five white petals. It si bisexual, in сorymb-recame inflorescence. The fruit is red, or yellow edible, sweet, aggregation of drupes/
Rubus idaeus (Raspberry, also called Red Raspberry or occasionally as European Raspberry to distinguish it from other raspberries) is a red-fruited species of Rubus native to Europe and northern Asia and commonly cultivated in other temperate regions. A closely related plant in
Cultivation
A bowl of fresh-picked wild red raspberries in
R. idaeus is grown primarily for its fruits, but occasionally for its leaves, roots, or other parts.
Fruits
The fruit of R. idaeus is an important food crop, though most modern commercial raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus.
Leaves and other parts
Main article: Red raspberry leaf
Red raspberries contains 31 μg/100 g of folate. Berries and berry extracts possess properties that make them important in the prevention of cancer. The leaves have been used for centuries as a folk medicine to treat canker sores, cold sores, and gingivitis in persons of all ages as well as to treat anemia, leg cramps, diarrhea, and morning sickness in pregnant women, and as a uterine relaxant.
Young roots of Rubus idaeus prevented kidney stone formation in a mouse model of hyperoxaluria. Tiliroside from raspberry is a potent tyrosinase inhibitor and might be used as a skin-whitening agent and pigmentation medicine.
Raspberry fruit may protect the liver.
Active ingridient
Vitamin C and phenolics are present in red raspberries. Most notably, the anthocyanins cyanidin-3-sophoroside, cyanidin-3-(2(G)-glucosylrutinoside) and cyanidin-3-glucoside, the two ellagitannins sanguiin H-6 and lambertianin C are present together with trace levels of flavonols, ellagic acid and hydroxycinnamate.
Polyphenolic compounds from raspberry seeds are efficient antioxidants
Uses: Fruit as antiscorbuticum, antiphlodisticum, diaphoreticum means.
Black chokeberry (ARONIA – Aronia melanocarpa.)
The chokeberries (Aronia) are two species of deciduous shrubs in the family Rosaceae, native to eastern North America. They are most commonly found in wet woods and swamps. The leaves are alternate, simple, and oblanceolate with crenate margins and pinnate venation; in autumn the leaves turn a bold red color. Dark trichomes are present on the upper midrib surface. The flowers are small, with 5 petals and 5 sepals, and produced in corymbs of 10-25 together. Hypanthium is urn-shaped. The fruit is a small pome, with a very astringent, bitter flavor; it is eaten by birds (birds do not taste astringency and feed on them readily), which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. The name “chokeberry” comes from the astringency of the fruits which are inedible when raw.
The chokeberries are often mistakenly called chokecherries, which is the commoame for Prunus virginiana. Further adding to the ambiguity, there is a cultivar of Prunus virginiana named ‘Melanocarpa, easily confused with Aronia melanocarpa. In fact, the two plants are only distantly related within the Rosaceae.
Chokeberries are very high in antioxidant pigment compounds, like anthocyanins. They share this property with chokecherries, further contributing to confusion.
Aronia is closely related to Photinia, and has been included in that genus in some classifications (Robertson et al. 1991). Botanist Kalkman argues that a combined genus should be under the older name Aronia, and is unsure about the monophyly of the combined group. The combined genus contains about 65 species.
In eastern
Red chokeberry, Aronia arbutifolia (Photinia pyrifolia), grows to 2-
Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa)
Black chokeberry, Aronia melanocarpa (Photinia melanocarpa),[5] tends to be smaller, rarely exceeding 1 m tall, rarely 3 m, and spreads readily by root sprouts. The leaves are smaller, not more than 6 cm long, with terminal glands on leaf teeth and a glabrous underside. The flowers are white, 1.5 cm diameter, with glabrous sepals. The fruit is black, 6-9 mm diameter, not persisting into winter.
The two species hybridise in the wild, giving the Purple Chokeberry, Aronia prunifolia (Photinia floribunda). Leaves are moderately pubescent on the underside. Few to no glands are present on the sepal surface. The fruit is dark purple to black, 7-
Uses
The chokeberries are attractive ornamental plants for gardens. They are naturally understory and woodland edge plants, and grow well when planted under trees. Chokeberries are resistant to drought, insects, pollution, and disease. Several cultivars have been developed for garden planting, including A. arbutifolia ‘Brilliant’, selected for its striking fall leaf color, and A. melanocarpa ‘Viking’ and ‘Nero’, selected for larger fruit suitable for jam-making. Chokeberries are self-fertile, so only one plant is needed to produce fruit.
Juice from these berries is astringent and not sweet, but high in vitamin C and antioxidants. The berries can be used to make wine or jam after cooking. Aronia is also used as a flavoring or colorant for beverages or yogurts.
The red chokeberry’s fruit is more palatable and can be eaten raw. It has a sweeter flavor than the black species and is used to make jam or pemmican.
Rowans or mountain-ashes (Sorbus aucuparia) – are mostly small deciduous trees 10-
The fruit are soft and juicy, which makes them a very good food for birds, particularly waxwings and thrushes.
Active ingregients contain glucose (to 5% ), apple, lemon, guilty and succinic acids (2,5% ), tannic (0,5% ) and pectin (0,5 %) matters, sorbitum and sorbose, amino acid, essential oils, salts to potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium.
Uses: fruit – diuretic, abstringens and tonic means.
European bird cherry (Padus avium. or P. racemosa) It is a species of cherry, native to northern Europe and northern Asia. It is a deciduous small tree or large shrub, 8–16 m tall, which grows south of the Arctic Circle in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia and Ukraine. There are also some trees in
Prunus is a trees and shrubs. Leaves are simple and usually lanceolate, unlobed and toothed along the margin.The flowers are usually white to pink, with five petals and five sepals. Inflorescences – racemes. The fruit is a drupe (a “prune”) with a relatively large hard coated seed (a “stone”).
AII morphology characterictics.
Small tree up to 5-
Ecology.
Mesophyte. Frost-resisting. Requiring to soil and prefer deep, comparative rich and damp soils (alluvial, soddy-gley, soddy-podsolic); rather semi-shade. Very plastic and undemanding plant. Sustainable in urban condition.
Tormentil cinquefoil – (Potentilla erecta). The grassy perennial with woody rhizome. Most of its flowers have 4 petals. Other Potentilla species have 5. Other features: A low-growing plant. Most leaves have three leaflets plus two large stipules at base looking like leaflets. Basal leaves long-stalked, occasionally with 5 leaflets but most have 3.
Potentilla is a genus containing about 500 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous flowering plants in the rose family Rosaceae. It is usually called cinquefoil in English. Potentilla are generally holarctic in distribution, though some may even be found in montane biomes of the New Guinea Highlands. Several other “cinquefoils” formerly included here are now separated in distinct genera.
Some species are called tormentils, though this is often used as a shorthand for common tormentil (P. erecta). Others are referred to as “barren strawberries”, which may also refer to P. sterilis in particular, or to the closely related but not congeneric Waldsteinia fragarioides.
“Cinquefoil” in the Middle English Dictionary is described as “Pentafilon – From Greek Pentaphyllon – influenced by foil, a leaf. The European cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans), often used medicinally.”[2] The word is derived from Old French cinc, Middle English cink and ultimately Latin quinque – all meaning “five” –, and feuille and foil/foille which mean “leaf”. Formerly this term referred to five-leaved plants in general. In medieval times, the word “cinquefoil” was used almost exclusively in
The scientific name seems to have been influenced by a fusion of ancient names for these plants: common tormentil P. erecta was known as tormentilla in medieval Latin, derived from early Spanish – literally “a little torment”, meaning pain that while not debilitating is unpleasant and persistent (such as a belly ache, against which P. erecta was used). The change from initial “t” to “p” seems to have been influenced by terms such as poterium – Latin for the related burnets (Sanguisorba) –, or propedila and similar words used for the creeping cinquefoil P. reptans in the now-extinct Dacian language, as attested in Latin herbals.
In another medieval dictionary the French word potentille is defined as a “wild Tansie, a silver weed” – i.e. any of several composite plants of the genus Tanacetum especially T. vulgare. The related adjective potentiel/potentiells means “strong”, “forcible” or “powerful in operation”. Its origin is the French potence (“strong”, “powerful”, “mighty” or “potent”). The origin of these words is the Latin potens, with the same meaning.
Description and ecology
Typical cinquefoils look most similar to strawberries, but differ in usually having dry, inedible fruit (hence the name “barren strawberry” for some species). Many cinquefoil species have palmate leaves. Some species, such as the barren strawberry, have just three leaflets, and others (e.g. P. anserina) up to 15 or more leaflets arranged pinnately. The flowers are usually yellow, but may be white, pinkish or even red; the accessory fruit are usually dry but may be fleshy and strawberry-like, while the actual seeds – each one technically a single fruit – are tiny nuts. Cinquefoils grow wild in most cool and cold regions of the world. Most species are herbaceous perennials but a few are erect or creeping shrubs. Some are troublesome weeds. Other types are grown in gardens.
Medical, food, paint and cosmetic plant.
Potentilla diversifolia at
Cinquefoils are a prominent part of many ecosystems. In the United Kingdom alone, common tormentil P. erecta together with purple moor grass Molinia caerulea defines many grassy mires, and grows abundantly in the typical deciduous forest rich in downy birch (Betula pubescens), common wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea). In upland pastures on calcareous soil it typically accompanies common bent Agrostis capillaris, sheep’s fescue Festuca ovina and mother-of-thyme Thymus praecox. The boggy heathlands of southern Britain are dominated by bristle bent (Agrostis curtisii) and western gorse (Ulex gallii) as well as those on The Lizard peninsula, characterized by Cornish heath (Erica vagans) and black bog-rush (Schoenus nigricans). But it is most commonly seen in regions dominated by common heather (Calluna vulgaris) – be it the common lowland heaths rich in bell heather Erica cinerea, maritime heath where Spring squill (Scilla verna) grows in abundance, the submontane heaths of the north dominated by the peat moss Sphagnum capillifolium and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), or montane heathlands of Scotland with plentiful alpine juniper (Juniperus communis ssp. alpina).
Caterpillars of the Olive Skipper (Pyrgus serratulae) feed on cinquefoils
Spring cinquefoil P. neumanniana, on the other hand, is rare in Britain, found generally only in some southern calcareous grasslands rich in sheep’s fescue; in the south west it associates with Carline Thistle (Carlina vulgaris), whereas in the south east it is usually accompanied by Mouse-ear Hawkweed (Hieracium pilosella) and either or both mother-of-thyme and large thyme T. pulegioides.
The leaves of some cinquefoils are eaten by the caterpillars of some Lepidoptera, in particular grizzled skippers (Pyrgus) of the Hesperiidae; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Potentilla. The plants’ flowers are also occasionally visited by adult Lepidoptera; for example, the endangered Karner Blue (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) includes nectar of common cinquefoil (P. simplex) among its common food sources. Polish Cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica), in former times commercially important in crimson dye production, is a notable parasite of cinquefoils on sandy soils of Eastern Europe and western
The flowers of cinquefoils are pollinated by such insects as the Fernald cuckoo bumble bee, Bombus fernaldae.
Use by humans
Sulphur Cinquefoil (P. recta) growing in a garden
Some of the typical cinquefoils are grown as ornamental plants. These are generally high species with bright, showy flowers, such as P. atrosanguinea, P. nepalensis and Sulphur Cinquefoil (P. recta). Horticultural hybrids such as Hopwood’s Cinquefoil (P. × hopwoodiana) and Tongue Cinquefoil (P. × tonguei) have also been bred, and there exists a range of cultivars. Even double-flowered cinquefoils have been bred, starting with Victor Lemoine‘s 1854 ‘Gloire de Nancy’. Other species are useful for more specialized gardening purposes, such as rock gardens or swamps. Among the former is the hardy Spring Cinquefoil (P. neumanniana), the floral emblem of Cromartyshire.
Some species are used in herbalism. P. fragarioides contains D-Catechin and is used as a hemostatic in Traditional Chinese Medicine, while Common Tormentil (P. erecta) was similarly used in European folk medicine, and also to treat diarrhea and other gastrointestinal ailments. It is rich in flavonoids, saponins, tannins, as well as phenol and the glycoside tormentilline, and has been shown to be bacteriostatic and virostatic. It also contains the red dye tormentole and was sometimes used to colour leather and other materials in former times.
Common Tormentil has also been used in transplant research, demonstrating that these are useful to distinguish between subspecies, and forms and varieties: the former are distinct populations with strongly heritable traits, while the latter two have distinguishing traits produced by ecological conditions and ofteot inheritable.
Potentilla erecta extract have been succesfully used to treat different types of diarrhea, including diarrhea in adult patients with inflammatory bowel diseas. Sergei Shushunov, MD and his team conducted studies on treating diarrhea in children suffering from viral enterocolitis, demonstrating very remarcable results. Patented Potentilla erecta preparation for children is manufactured by Lev Laboratories
The root is used to make medicine.
People use tormentil as a tea for diarrhea, stomach problems, and fever.Tormentil tincture, an alcoholic preparation of the root, is sometimes applied to small cuts to stop bleeding. It is also added to water and used as a rinse or mouthwash to treat sore mouth and throat.
Garden burnet (Sanguisorba of officinalis) is a perennial herb with slender stems growing 10 –
Active ingregients: the rhizome with a root contained by tannic matters, organic acids, essential oil, saponins, flavonoids
Uses: Rhizomes with a root use as abstrindens, haemostypticum means
Use is made of its extensive root system for erosion control, as well as a bioremediator, used to reclaim derelict sites such as landfills.
The leaves are used in salads because they are mildly reminiscent of cucumber. Selective pruning of apical meristems, such as at flower heads, is used to encourage an increase in leaf production.
Linen family (Linaceae)
Flax (also known as common flax or linseed) (Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is a food and fibre crop that is grown in cooler regions of the world. Flax fibres are taken from the stem of the plant and are two to three times as strong as those of cotton. As well, flax fibres are naturally smooth and straight. Europe and
So, Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is annual grassy plant with the simple lanceolate leaves located by turns. Flowers are actinomorphic, bisexual, with a blue 5-membership chaplet. A fruit is a small сapsule with brilliant brown seed which accumulate butters and mucus.
Uses: seed as protectivum,emollins and laxans means.
Flax fibers are amongst the oldest fiber crops in the world. The use of flax for the production of linen goes back at least to ancient Egyptian times. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in Dzudzuana (prehistoric Georgia) have been dated to 30,000 years ago.[4] Pictures on tombs and temple walls at Thebes depict flowering flax plants. The use of flax fiber in the manufacturing of cloth iorthern
Flax seeds
Brown flax seeds
Flax seeds come in two basic varieties: (1) brown; and (2) yellow or golden. Most types have similar nutritional characteristics and equal numbers of short-chain omega-3 fatty acids. The exception is a type of yellow flax called solin (trade name Linola), which has a completely different oil profile and is very low in omega-3 FAs. Although brown flax can be consumed as readily as yellow, and has been for thousands of years, it is better known as an ingredient in paints, fiber and cattle feed. Flax seeds produce a vegetable oil known as flaxseed or linseed oil, which is one of the oldest commercial oils, and solvent-processed flax seed oil has been used for centuries as a drying oil in painting and varnishing.
Golden flax seeds
One hundred grams of ground flax seed supplies about 450 calories,
Flax seed sprouts are edible, with a slightly spicy flavor. Excessive consumption of flax seeds with inadequate water can cause bowel obstruction. Flaxseed, called (‘Tisi’ or ‘Alsi’) iorthern India, has been roasted, powdered and eaten with boiled rice, a little water, and a little salt since ancient times in the villages.
Whole flax seeds are chemically stable, but ground flaxseed can go rancid at room temperature in as little as one week.Refrigeration and storage in sealed containers will keep ground flax from becoming rancid for a longer period; under conditions similar to those found in commercial bakeries, trained sensory panelists could not detect differences between bread made with freshly ground flax and bread made with milled flax stored for four months at room temperature. Milled flax is remarkably stable to oxidation when stored for nine months at room temperature if packed immediately without exposure to air and light[and for 20 months at ambient temperatures under warehouse conditions.
Three natural phenolic glucosides, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside and ferulic acid glucoside, can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed.
Nutrients and clinical research
Flax seeds contain high levels of dietary fiber as well as lignans, an abundance of micronutrients and omega-3 fatty acids (table). Studies have shown that flax seeds may lower cholesterol levels, although with differing results in terms of gender. One study found results were better for women [ whereas a later study found benefits only for men.Initial studies suggest that flax seeds taken in the diet may benefit individuals with certain types of breast[ and prostate cancers.A study done at Duke University suggests that flaxseed may stunt the growth of prostate tumors,[ although a meta-analysis found the evidence on this point to be inconclusive.Flax may also lessen the severity of diabetes by stabilizing blood-sugar level There is some support for the use of flax seed as a laxative due to its dietary fiber content[ though excessive consumption without liquid can result in intestinal blockage.Consuming large amounts of flax seed may impair the effectiveness of certain oral medications, due to its fiber content,and may have adverse effects due to its content of neurotoxic cyanogen glycosides and immunosuppressive cyclic nonapeptides.
One of the main components of flax is lignan, which has plant estrogen as well as antioxidants (flax contains up to 800 times more lignans than other plant foods contain).
Flax fibers
A Heckling Shop in Irvine, Ayrshire used to prepare flax fibers
Flax fiber is extracted from the bast or skin of the stem of the flax plant. Flax fiber is soft, lustrous and flexible; bundles of fiber have the appearance of blonde hair, hence the description “flaxen”. It is stronger than cotton fiber but less elastic. The best grades are used for linen fabrics such as damasks, lace and sheeting. Coarser grades are used for the manufacturing of twine and rope. Flax fiber is also a raw material for the high-quality paper industry for the use of printed banknotes and rolling paper for cigarettes and tea bags. Flax mills for spinning flaxen yarn were invented by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington in 1787.New methods of processing flax and the rising price of cotton have led to renewed interest in the use of flax as an industrial fiber. Naturally Advanced‘s Crailar technology is one proprietary method that is increasing the industrial adoption of this plant.
Cultivation
A flax field in bloom iorthwestern
The significant linseed producing countries are Canada (~34%) and China (~25.5%), though there is also production in India (~9%), USA (~8%), Ethiopia (~3.5%) and throughout Europe. Almost all of the United States crop is from the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana.[23]
Linseed output in 2005
The soils most suitable for flax, besides the alluvial kind, are deep loams, and containing a large proportion of organic matter. It is often found just above the waterline in cranberry bogs. Heavy clays are unsuitable, as are soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature. Farming flax requires few fertilizers or pesticides. Within 8 weeks of sowing, the plant will reach 10–15 cm in height, and will grow several centimeters per day under its optimal growth conditions, reaching 70–80 cm within fifteen days.
Production
2011 production in the
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Top five linseed producers — 2007 |
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Country |
Production (metric tons) |
Footnote |
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633,500 |
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47,490 |
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45,000 |
* |
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41,000 |
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34,000 |
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World |
1,875,018 |
A |
The Saxifrage family (Saxifragaceae)
Leather bergenia (Bergenia crassifolia) is grassy perennial with the lengthened horizontal rhizome. Sheets are in basal leaves are oval, coriaceous, collected, in a rosette. Flowers are whiter-rose.. In
Uses: rhizome as abstringens means.
The Gooseberry family (Grossulariaceae)
Currant black (Ribes nigrum).
It is a small shrub growing to 1–2 m tall. The leaves are alternate, simple, 3-5 cm long and broad, and palmately lobed with five lobes, with a serrated margin. The flowers are 4–6 mm diameter, with five reddish-green to brownish petals; they are produced in racemes 5–10 cm long.
Wheot in fruit, the plant looks similar to the redcurrant shrub, distinguished by a strong fragrance from leaves and stems. The fruit is an edible berry 1 cm diameter, very dark purple in color, almost black, with a glossy skin and a persistent calyx at the apex, and containing several seeds dense iutrients.
Plants from Asia are sometimes distinguished as a separate variety Ribes nigrum var. sibiricum, or even as a distinct species Ribes cyathiforme.
Mechanism of action pharmacology:
· Constituents: Black currant has been shown to be rich in phenolic compounds.1In one study, black currant seed oil was found to contain 14.5% alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n3), 12.6% gamma-linolenic acid (18:3n6), 47.5% linoleic acid (18:2n6), and 2.7% stearidonic acid (18:4n3). Black currant seed oil has been shown to modulate membrane lipid composition and eicosanoid production.
· The flavonoids found in black currant belong to one of two classes: the anthocyanin class1or the proanthocyanidin class. Black currant contains the four main anthocyanins: delphinidine-3-glucoside, delphinidine-3-rutinoside, cyanidine-3-glucoside, and cyanidine-3-rutinoside. One study showed that these four anthocyanins were excreted unchanged (0.020-0.050% of the oral doses) after 200mL oral doses containing 153mg of anthocyanins at 30-minute intervals for five hours.
· Black currant fruit and juice contain approximately 2,000mg of vitamin C per kg, as well as rutin and other flavonoids. This level of vitamin C is approximately five times that of oranges and is much higher than its relative herb, red currant (Ribes rubrum).
· Antibacterial effects (H. pylori): One study found that acidic, high-molecular-weight galactans are responsible for the anti-adhesive qualities of black currant seed extracts.These polymers are able to block H. pylori surface receptors, thus inhibiting their interaction with specific binding factors located on human gastric epithelia.
· Anticoagulant effects: Based on anecdotal information, black currant may interact with herbs with anticoagulant effects.Black currant contains gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (
· Anti-inflammatory effects: In one study, monocytes were isolated from subjects and cultured in the presence of lipopolysaccharide.Subjects given black currant seed oil showed markedly altered prostaglandin E2 production, as well as production from the cultured monocytes of the cytokines IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-6. Results suggest anti-inflammatory effects due to a reduction in the inflammatory cytokines IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha, possibly through the redirection of eicosanoid metabolism, although this alteration may occur through an effect on the monocyte membranes.
· Antioxidant effects: In one study, the antioxidant intensities of nine anthocyanin glycosides were measured in plasma of study volunteers after the administration of black currant anthocyanins. The antioxidant intensities were affected by three factors: pH value and both moieties of the aglycon and C-3 sugar.Chemiluminescence intensity increased from pH 5.0 until its max at 6.0-7.0 and then decreased at 9.0. The intensities among the 3-glucosides with five different aglycons compared with the 3-glycosides with three different sugar moieties at C-3 showed that the strongest intensities were given by the delphinidin aglycon and 3-rutinosyl moiety, respectively.
· Antiviral effects: Kurokarin extract (Ribes nigrum L./black currant) has shown anti-influenza virus effects in vitro.The concentration of extract needed to produce inhibitory effects in plaque formation (stages IVA and IVB) by 50% (IC50) was 3.2mcg/mL. At a 10mcg per mL dose of the extract, IVA and IVB were directly inactivated by 99% at a pH level of 2.8 and by 95-98% at pH of 7.2. IVA cells were completely suppressed after treatment with 10 and 100mcg per mL of extract for one hour at eight to nine hours after infection, indicating that the extract inhibited viral release from infected cells.
· An in vitro study of anti-herpes virus activity of kurokarin (black currant) extract showed inhibitory effects in herpes-simplex-1 attachment on the cell membrane and plaque formation of herpes-simplex-1 and 2 at a 100-fold dilution, as well as the inhibition of varicella-zoster by 50% at a 400-fold dilution or lower concentrations.The inhibition of varicella-zoster was due to the inhibition of protein synthesis in infected cells from early stage infection.
· Circulatory effects: Left forearm blood flow (FBF) was measured in 20 healthy volunteers after 17mg capsules of either black currant seed oil or placebo.Before dosing and every hour for four hours thereafter, FBF following venous occlusion and muscle oxygen consumption following arterial occlusion were measured. Two hours after ingestion, the group given black currant seed oil had a significant increase if FBF (p<0.05) vs. placebo and tended to increase for three hours after ingestion.
· Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitory effects: In vitro studies of black currant on COX enzymes indicated the inhibition of prostaglandin E2 synthesis, but prodelphinidin did not affect COX in the whole blood assay.These results suggest that the prodelphinidin fractions in black currant may be a useful additive in the prevention of osteoarthritis.
· Hematologic effects: In a double-blind, placebo controlled, crossover study, the effects of black currant anthocyanin intake on peripheral circulation and shoulder stiffness caused by poor local circulation were evaluated. Left forearm blood flow increased notably two hours after black currant anthocyanin ingestion vs. placebo. Black currant anthocyanin intake also significantly prevented a decrease in oxygenated hemoglobin (p<0.05). These results suggest that black currant anthocyanin intake may improve shoulder stiffness by increasing peripheral blood flow.
· Immune response effects in elderly subjects: One randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study of 40 healthy subjects aged 65 years or older examined the effects of black currant seed oil supplementation for two months on immune response. Investigators found that black currant seed oil had a moderate immune-enhancing effect most probably attributed to its ability to reduce prostaglandin E2 production.
· Inflammatory disease effects: Black currant seed oil is a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have shown to act in the treatment of inflammatory disease.
· Vascular effects: A study found that preparations rich in gamma-linolenic acid, one type of essential fatty acid found in black currant, may influence cardiovascular control by mechanisms yet to be clarified.
· Venous disorder effects: One randomized study of 2,295 women with vein insufficiency evaluated the effects of Ribes nigrum (black currant) extract on the condition.One group received the extract every day for 24 weeks, and the second group was given the same dose only on days 10-28. After 24 weeks of treatment, pain and edema were absent in 89.1% and 79.6% of women in the two groups, respectively. Overall, the effects in both treatment groups continued and improved with time by an unspecified mechanism of action.
List of the made to order literature
Literature
1. Botany / Randy Moore, W.Denis Clark, Kingsley R.Stern, Darrell Vodopich. – Dubuque, IA, Bogota, Boston, Buenos Aires, Caracas, Chicago, Guilford, CT, London, Madrid, Mexico City, Sydney, Toronto: Wm.C.Brown Publishers.- 1994. -P.474-480.
2. Gulko R.M. Explanatory Dictionary of Medicinal Botany. – Lviv: LSMU, 2003.-200 p.
3. Kindsley R. Stern. Introductory plant biology. –
4. Ткаченко H.M., Cep6iн A..Г. Ботаніка.- Xapків: Ocновa, 1997.
5. Рейвн П., Эверт Р., Айкхорн С. Современная ботаника: В 2-х т. – М., 1990.
Lecture prepared ass.–prof. I.Z. Kernychna
