№ 3. Ukraine. Ecological situation in Ukraine. My native town (village). Perfect Tenses. Participle II.
Ukraine is a sovereign state; its independence was proclaimed in 1991. Ukraine is situated in the east of Europe. The territory of Ukraine is 603 700 square kilometres. Ukraine borders on Russia, Belarus, Poland, Moldova, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. It’s washed by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov and has very important ports. Ukraine is larger than France and Great Britain but considerably smaller than Russia. 5% of Ukraine’s territory is mountainous; the rest part of the Ukrainian area is flat. Ukraine has the Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains. The Carpathians is the natural mountainous boundary of Ukraine. They are covered with mixed forests of pine, fir, beech and oak trees. There are the thickest forests in Volyn, which are part of the famous Byelovezhskaya Puscha.
The Dnieper is the main river of the country; moreover, it’s the third longest river in Europe. Such rivers as the Dniester, the Danube, the Southern Bug and the Seversky Donets are also important.
The population of our country is about 46 million people. Besides Ukrainians the representatives of many other nationalities live there: Russians, Jews, Belarusians, Moldavians, Romanians, Greeks, Tatars, Poles, Armenians, Germans, Gypsies and other ethnic minorities. They contributed to Ukraine’s culture and history.
The biggest cities of Ukraine are Kyiv, Kharkiv, Lviv, Dnipropetrovsk, Zaporizhzhya, Donetsk, Odessa, Mykolaiv and others.
Ukraine is developed industrial and agricultural country. It’s rich in iron ore, coal, natural gas, oil, salt and other mineral resources. Ukraine has such branches of industry as metallurgy, machine-building, power industry, chemical industry and agriculture. Scientists of Ukraine make their contributions of important discoveries and inventions to the world science.
Ukraine has a rich historical and cultural heritage. There are many higher educational establishments, theatres, libraries, museums, art galleries in Ukraine. It’s also famous for many outstanding writers, poets and musicians.
Ukraine is a member of the United Nation Organization and takes part in the work of many international organizations.
Ukraine is one of the largest countries of Eastern Europe. It occupies an area of 603 700 km2. Its territory stretches for 893 kilometres from north to south and for 1316 kilometres from east to west. It has state borders with Russia, Belarus and Moldova. It also borders on Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania.
In the south it is washed by the Black and the Azov Seas. The major rivers are the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Donets and others.
The major part of Ukraine is flat and only 5% of it is mountainous. The two mountainous areas in Ukraine are the Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains.
The geographical position of Ukraine is very favourable because the country lies on the crossroads of the ways from Asia to Europe.
Ukraine has deposits of iron, manganese, coal, natural gas, oil and other mineral resources.
The main branches of industry are: coal and ore mining, iron and steel engineering, machine and ship building. Besides, Ukraine has always been an agrarian country. Traditionally crop-growing and cattlebreeding are being developed.
The population of Ukraine is about 50 million people. The biggest cities are Kyiv, Kharkiv, Zaporizhia, Dnipropetrovsk, Odesa, Lviv, Mykolaiv and others.
Ukraine has an ancient history. It has its own original culture and arts.
The country is one of the members of the United Nations Organization (UNO) and participates in the work of many international organizations.
Ukraine is a rich agricultural, industrial and mining region in south-eastern Europe. It is an independent democratic state. Its population is about 52 mln people. The capital of Ukraine is Kiev. Ukraine has its own armed forces, and maintains its own diplomatic relations with foreign countries. Ukraine covers about 603.700 sq. km being larger than any country in Western Europe. From east to west Ukraine stretches for more than 1300 km and from north to south for almost 900 km. It borders with Belarus and Russia on the north and on the east. In the south it is bounded by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. In the west Ukraine is bounded by Moldova, Rumania, Hungary, Slovakia and Poland. Ukraine is located in ideal geographical position for the development of its resources, lying between 440 and 520 latitude north, on the same latitude as the USA or Britain. The climate is mild and warm, with a long summer and a short winter. Together with its fertile black soil, this makes it ideal for the development of intensive agriculture. The main part of Ukraine is located in the watershed of the Dnieper-River, which divides Ukraine into two parts: Right-Bank and Left-Bank Ukraine. Ukraine’s proximity to the Black Sea and the presence of large navigable rivers running through its territory has promoted the development of trade and culture. The Black Sea is not only a means of communication with Transcaucasia and Turkey but also with the rest of the world through the Mediterranean Sea. Ukraine also lies on the Danube, and this gives it access to European countries. Through the Siversky Donets it has access to the Don. The territory of Ukraine is criss-crossed by railroads and highways, oil and gas pipelines and high-voltage transmission lines – all of which ensure close economic ties with Eastern and Western Europe. Ukraine is a highly industrialised country, whose economic potential is great.
The geographical position of Ukraine
Ukraine’s area is 233,088 square miles (603,700 sq. km). It’s slightly larger than France. Ukraine is mainly a vast plain with no natural boundaries except the Carpathian Mountains in the south-west and the Black Sea in the south. The Dnipro River with its many tributaries unifies central Ukraine economically, connecting the Baltic coast countries with the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. The mouth of the Danube River provides an outlet for Ukrainian trade with the Balkans, Austria and Germany.
Central and southern Ukraine is primarily steppe (prairie), with fertile black soil exceptionally well suited for grain farming. In the east there is the industrial heartland containing large reserves of mineral deposits known as the Greater Donbas or Donetsk Basin.
Northern and western Ukraine are hilly, forested areas with many picturesque mountain resorts. There are two mountain ranges, the Carpathian on its western border where winter sports are very popular; and the Crimean range, which divides the Crimean peninsular. The Crimea is a favourite destinatioot only for Ukrainian tourists, but also for citizens of other states of the former Soviet Union, as well as eastern and western Europe.
National symbols
The Constitution states that the national symbols of Ukraine shall be the National Flag, the National Emblem and the National Anthem.
The Ukrainian flag consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width. The top is blue, the bottom – yellow. Blue and yellow, the colors of the sky, mountains, streams, and golden fields had symbolized Kyivan Rus’ long before the introduction of Christianity. With the acceptance of Christianity, blue and gold were incorporated into church symbolism. After the Mongol- Tatar invasion in the 1200’s the use of blue/gold was interrupted, to be revived again in church ornaments and city chrests some time later. The emblem of the city of Myrhorod, for example, was a gold triden tover a blue background. Another city, Pryluky, used the head of an ox in gold over a blue background as its insignia. And in Lubny, the city emblem pictured a hand holding a golden mace over a blue background. The banners of the Cossacks (17th Century) were blue with gold stars, a gold cross, or with pictures of saints rendered in gold.
The National Emblem is a trident. The first image of a trident appeared in the 1st century AD. When Ihor, Prince of Kyivan Rus’ from 912 to 945AD, sent ambassadors to sign a treaty with the Byzantine emperor, they sealed the document with a trident. As the official emblem of the Kyivan princes, the trident was stamped on coins, seals; it was depicted on porcelain and in frescoes. It is thought that the trident represented the division of the world into three spheres: the earthly, the celestial, and the spiritual as well as the union of the three natural elements of air, water and earth. The trident was endorsed as the official emblem of Ukraine; the blue and yellow flag as the national flag of Ukraine by the Supreme Rada in 1992.
The lyrics to the anthem of Ukraine were written hy Pavlo Chubynsky – a scientist and poet – in 1862. The music was composed by M. Verbytsky.
Language
The Ukrainian language is classified, along with Russian and Belorussian, as a Slavic language. Several hypotheses exist about the origins of the Ukrainian language. .
Phonetic, grammatical and lexical characteristics of the Ukrainian language are already apparent in literature from the XII century. The evolution of the language can be traced from the early texts, such as the Gospel of Kamieniets – Strumilov (1411), written in Old Ukrainian, through the
Peresopnytskyi Gospel (1556-1561), where a more developed, lively language was used (Middle Ukrainian), to Modern Ukrainian, first used in literature by Ivan Kotliarevskyi in the 1700’s.
Due to historical conditions it was difficult for the Ukrainian language to develop. Ukraine was the target of invasions from neighbouring states for ages. From 1362 Ukraine was under Lithuania; later under Poland, Austria-Hungary, and most recently, under Russia for over 300 years. Language and culture were stifled; the population little by little denationalized.
Now that Ukraine is independent, Ukrainian language, traditions and culture are being revived. Ukrainian is the official state language; it is being studied and is the subject of academic research.
Kyiv – the capital of Ukraine
Kiev (Kyiv, in Ukrainian), the capital of Ukraine, has the population of nearly 3 million inhabitants and covers over 43 km from east to west and 42 km from north to south.
According to historical literature, Kyiv was founded by three brothers Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv, and their sister Lybid. The city was named after Kyi, the eldest brother. The monument erected in their honor, stands on the bank of the River Dnipro.
In the late 6th and early 7th century the first fortification appeared in the northern section of Old Kyiv Hill. While the court of the princes was located on the hills of Kyiv, the lower part of the city, known as Podil, developed into a busy trading district.
With the establishment of Kyivan Rus (the 9th century), Kyiv became its capital.
Prince Volodymyr the Great (980-1015) expanded the city, Kyivan Rus was at its zenith under the rule of Prince Iaroslav the Wise (1036-54). Monasteries were established and developed into centers of education. Close to 400 churches were built, the most famous of which, St. Sofia Cathedral (1037) has survived to this day. The first library was founded on the grounds of the cathedral.
Today, Kyiv is one of the great, ancient European cities, rich with historic monuments of art and architecture. It is a political, scientific, cultural, sports and industrial center of modern Ukraine.
Kyiv is a major industrial center that includes companies specializing in electronics, engineering, aviation, food and chemical production, etc. Kyiv’s economic development has been enriched by its advantageous location along the Dnipro River, which links Kyiv to the Black Sea.
It has many hotels, cafes and restaurants with Ukrainian, European, American and Eastern cuisine to accommodate tourists and business persons. Modern stadiums, tennis courts swimming pools and gyms are available. If you visit Kyiv in late May, you will witness a beautiful festival – “The Days of Kyiv”.
The constitution is the main law of Ukraine
The constitutions take a special place in the world civilization and play an important role in the political history of every country. The constitution of the young independent state of Ukraine is not the exception.
The principles forming the basis of our Constitution conform to the modern democratic norms operating in all developed countries. But we can say with pride that the legal traditions of the Ukrainian people are deeply rooted in the past.
The first constitutions were adopted at the end of the eighteenth century. The Constitution of the USA was adopted in 1787. In 1791 the Constitutions of France and Poland were adopted.
But long before in 1710 in Bendery city Kozak Rada and Pylyp Orlyk, Getman of Ukraine in expulsion, adopted the document which was the first prototype of modern constitutions. It was called “Pacts and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of Zaporozhsky Troops”.
This Constitution included the preamble and 16 paragraphs. The main principles of construction of the Ukrainian state were formulated there: the role of orthodoxy in state and society, the independence of Ukraine from Poland and Moscow. But the most important achievement of this Constitution was the idea of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers. This idea reflected the most progressive views of that time on the state building.
Nevertheless all the attempts to create the independent Ukrainian state failed. 150 years later, in 1917-1920 the Central Rada and Getman Skoropadsky, made one more unsuccessful attempt. Only at the end of the 20th century Ukraine became both the independent state and the full member of the European Community.
Due to this it was necessary to bring the Ukrainian legislation into accord with Europeaorms. And during the 5th session of the Supreme Rada, after the intensive and dramatic debates, which did not stop even at night, the Main Law of Ukraine was adopted. It happened on the 28th of June, 1996 at 9.20 a. m.
The Constitution of Ukraine includes the preamble and 102 clauses. They reflect the main principles of the state system of Ukraine, the rights and duties of its citizens.
The main law of our state exists not only on paper. Despite the definite difficulties, the Constitution has already come in force. For example, the national monetary unit – Hryvnia has been put into operation, the Cabinet of Ministers and the Constitutional Court have been formed.
Every citizen of Ukraine should realize the importance of the Constitution in the process of the formation of the legal democratic state. The pupils and students should study the Constitution. This is mentioned in the decrees of the Ministry of Education and President of Ukraine. Because, as Leonid Kuchma, President of Ukraine, said: “If we don’t respect the Constitution, there won’t be any respect to us, to Ukraine and its people”.
Hryvnia – the official currency of Ukraine
Hryvnia was introduced on September 2, 1996 right after the сelebration of Ukraine Independence Day. It replaced the old “Coupon” (or “Karbovanets”) which was a temporary bill in Ukraine for the period it was leaving the rouble zone. Old coupons were changedat fixed rate 100.000 coupons for 1 Hryvnia since September 15 and now it is the only legal tender in Ukraine.
There are bills for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 Hryvnias. There are also coins called “kopiyka” for 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50 kopiykas. (1 kopiyka is equal to 1/100 of Hryvnia.)
Bills of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 Hryvnias marked with year 1992 where designed and printed in Canada’. Bills of 1 Hryvnia (alternative design), 50 and 100 Hryvnias were designed and printed already in Ukraine in 1994.
Hryvnia can be freely converted to hard currency in any authorised bank or exchange point.
During the last period it proved to be a stable and reliable currency.
There are several protection layers in Hryvnia bills. In addition bills of 50 and 100 Hryvnias and partially 1 Hryvnia (alternative design) have additional protection levels to ensure their safety.
In August 1997 the National Bank of Ukraine announced that starting from September 1, 1997 the new design of 2, 5, 10 and 20 Hryvnia bills will be released to increase their protection from falsification. New bills will slowly replace old ones while those will still be valid.
Education
In Ukraine, all citizens are guaranteed an equal opportunity to get free education. Nearly 22,300 general-education schools, mainly state-run, operate in Ukraine. Approximately 7,000,000 pupils attend these schools. More than half of these pupils (57%) are educated in the Ukrainian language; the rest of the schools teach Ukrainian as a separate subject. There are schools where the language of instruction is Russian Moldovian, Hungarian, Romanian, Polish, Crimean Tatar, etc.
Ukraine has 232 institutions of higher learning of the 3rd-4th level of accreditation and 778 institutions of higher learning of the lst-2nd levels of accreditation. Above 888,500 and 645,000 students study at those institutions.
New types of educational institutions, including private schools and colleges are being established.
Climate and population of Ukraine
The climate in Ukraine is similar to the wheat-producing regions of Canada and is characterised by abundant precipitation and cloudy skies, especially in fall and winter. The mean temperature in summer is 67°F (19°C) and in winter 21°F (~6°C). Although summers tend to be short, the temperature can rise to the 90°F (30°C) making it uncomfortable, since most buildings have no central cooling systems. Winters are long and cold, with cloudy skies as a norm.
The population of Ukraine is approximately 48 million. 68% of the population is urban; 32% is rural.
The major cities: Kyiv – 2.6 million, Kharkiv -1.6 million, Dnipropetrovsk – 1.2 million, Donetsk – 1.1 million, Odessa – 1.1 million, Lviv – 1 million. Population density is 85.7 persons per sq. km.
Ukraine is inhabited by representatives of more than 110 nationalities. Ukrainians comprise 72.7% of the population, Russians – 22.1%, Jews, Belorussians, Moldovans, Bulgarians, Poles, Hungarians, Romanians, Greeks, Tatars, Armenians, Gypsies, and Germans – 5.2%.
The official language in Ukraine is the Ukrainian language. The Constitution of Ukraine guarantees and defends the rights of ethnic minorities.
6.8 million Ukrainians live in the countries of the former Soviet Union including some 4.4 million in Russia, 0.9 million in Kazakhstan, 0.6 million in Uzbekistan and 0.1 million in Kirghizstan.
Approximately 5 million Ukrainians live in Europe, North and South America and Australia. The majority of these live in Canada, the USA, Argentina, Brazil, Germany, Great Britain and Austria.
The environmental situation
The high level of industrial and agricultural concentration and ecologically unjustified economic activities of the managerial structures of the former USSR are responsible for a rather complicated ecological situation that has taken shape in Ukraine. The most unfavourable is the Donetsk-Trans- Dnieper region where a lot of mining metallurgical and chemical enterprises are operating.
As a result of the Chornobyl nuclear power plant disaster of 1986, the environmental situation has become much worse. Apropos of this Ukraine appealed to the UN requesting help to overcome the disaster aftermath.
The Environmental Protection Law well in compliance with international standards in this field has been in force since 1991.
The economic mechanism of conservation is being introduced. Environmental safeguards of conservation bodies have become more stringent. Ecological monitoring has covered Ukraine’s whole area and the Extraordinary Governmental Commission on the Problems of the Dnieper and Upgrading the Quality of Drinking Water has been set up. Ukraine has actively joined international cooperation in the field of environmental protection. Agreements have been signed with conservation bodies of the USA, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Germany and Latvia. The Ukrainian delegation took part in the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.
Ukraine enters a new phase of its history with intentions to create a democratically minded, law-based, independent society. Ukraine is looking for its place in European House, in the civilized world going to its aim unswervingly.
Religion
The most widespread religion in Ukraine is Christianity. Most of the faithful belong to the Orthodox Church. Christianity was adopted as the state religion by Prince Volodymyr in 988.
In 1596 a split occurred in the church, creating two churches: the Orthodox and the Uniate (Greek Catholic) church.
Today, much of the population of western Ukraine belongs to the Greek Catholic Church.
In modern times, the Greek Catholic Church experienced persecution, as did the Orthodox Church. The rebirth of the Ukrainian state in 1917-18 gave impetus to the movement within the Orthodox Church to break away from the Russian church.
From 1930 to 1980 religious life was stifled; most churches and cathedrals were closed; members of the clergy were persecuted. Since Ukraine’s independence, the number of the faithful has increased dramatically. There has been a rebirth in religious activity: Sunday schools, religious publications abound. Religious schools have been opened. Since 1994, 138 religious buildings have been returned to their rightful owners, 261 new churches have been constructed, and 1,739 more are being built.
Today, the leading churches of Ukraine are:
Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchy, headed by the Metropolitan Vladimir);
Ukrainian Greek Roman (Catholic) Church (headed by Cardinal Myroslav Ivan Lobachivskyi);
Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Kyiv (headed by Patriarch Filaret).
Music
The Ukrainiaation is famous for its musicality. One could see the first old Russian musicians in the frescos of Saint Sofia Cathedral. Archeological researches stated that first musical instruments were made of mammoth ivory.
The most widespread musical instrument of the Old Rus was psaltery. The psaltery was used to accompany songs that were narrating about brave princes and bodyguards. The psalterymen were welcomed for the family holidays.
During the Mongol-Tatar invasion the development of Ukrainian musical culture was stopped.
The Ukrainian folk songs inspired famous composers in their work. One can hear the spiritual music of Ukrainian composers in different churches of the world (D. Bortnyansky, M. Berezovsky, A. Vedel).
In S. Hulak-Artemovsky’s and M. Lysenko’s operas Ukrainian character and spirit, tender lyrical themes and patriotism were presented. The Ukrainian songs worked up by M. Leontovych, M. Lysenko, K. Stetsenko are very popular.
The most famous among the Ukrainian musical companies are State Academical cappella “Dumka” and State Academical National Choir of G. Veryovka, State Academical Ensemble of folk dance of P. Virsky.
The Ukrainian folk songs are a symbol of love and they are widespread in the world. Let us remember the P.i Mayboroda’s “Puisnya pro rushnyk” that has been famous for 30 years.
Science
In Old Rus the first venues of sciences were monasteries. “Code of Laws”, drawn up in the 10th-12th cc., laid the foundation of what would become Ukrainian, Russian, Belorussian and Lithuanian feudal law.
The 15th-17th cc. saw the peak of creative talent of physician Y. Drohobych and linguist M. Smotrytsky.
“Slavic Grammar” of M. Smotrytsky (17th c.) was the grammatical basis of many Slavic languages.
A major venue of sciences in the 18th c. was the Kyiv- Mohyla Academy. Among its graduates were such celebrated scientists as N. Maksymovych and O. Shumlyansky.
Much contribution to the development of Ukrainian science was made by M.Ostrogradsky (mathematics), O.Bodyansky (linguistics), V.Filatov (medicine).
In the XIX and early XX cc., the centres of scientific activity in Ukraine were Universities and Lyceums.
In October of 1918 the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences became a scientific centre. This Academy was founded by
getman P. Skoropadskiy. The first Academy president was the academician V. Vernadskiy. In the 20s of the XX century there were three departments in the Academy.
The Ukrainian Academy of Sciences was and still is the prominent scientific institution in the Ukrainian state. There are about 160 000 research workers, 12 000 candidates and doctors of science. There are 203 academicians, 280 corespondent-members and 80 foreign members.
Ukraine has made its contribution to the world space science. At the Southern Machine-Building plant about 400 artificial Earth satellites have been made.
During 1946-1951 the first electronic computing machine in Europe was designed by the academician S. Lebedev at the Institute of Electrical Equipment.
Tourism
Tourism, as an important factor in inter-branch cooperation and improvement of market relations, is directly linked to the intellectual, cultural and economic potential of Ukraine.
Ukraine has great potential for developing tourism: excellent geographic and climatic conditions, historical and cultural resources. Over 125 thousand archaeological, architectural, and historical monuments, some dating from the l0th-11th centuries, and hundreds of museums reflect the remarkable history of the Ukrainian people, who have made worthy contribution to world culture.
The most important and valuable historical, architectural and cultural monuments are concentrated in the regions around Kyiv, Chernyhiv, Sumy, Poltava, Cherkasy and in the lands of Halychyna and Podillia. The beauty and significance of these monuments and of objects of art and frescoes found in this area, have been the motivating factor in creating a system of tourist itineraries named “The Necklace of Slavutych” (Slavutych is the ancient Slavic name of the Dnipro River).
In recent years tourism has undergone considerable changes. Excellent conditions exist for good and inexpensive vacations. At the request of foreign tourist companies, a number of tourist itineraries are being explored.
Dozens of Ukrainian tourist companies participated in international tourist fairs, exchanges and other meetings held in Berlin, Warsaw, London, Milan and Budapest. Working relations have been established with the World Tourist Organization. Kyiv hosted three international tourist fairs. At the third fair held in October 1996, 362 travel companies from 35 countries took part. Approximately 900 contracts were signed.
Ukraine welcomes guests from all over the world to visit Ukraine and to travel throughout its hospitable land.
Sports
Since ancient times, Ukrainians were skilful archers, horsemen and wrestlers. In the late XIX century European sports and games were introduced; football and wrestling became the most popular.
Kyiv’s famous soccer team “Dynamo” won the European Cup Holder’s Cup twice, in 1975 and 1985. Oleg Blokhin and Igor Byelanov were named Europe’s best soccer players.
The “Spartaks” handball team from Kyiv, led by Senior Coach Ihor Turchyn has won 13 European Champion’s Cups. Zinaida Turchyna and Larysa Karlova were named best players in the World and European Championships several times.
The Ukrainian school of gymnastics is recognized the world over. Its representatives Iryna Deriuhina, Oleksandra Tymoshenko, Oksana Skaldina (and others) have won world and European championships. Larysa Latynina has the longest history of records in the Olympic Games: 18 medals, including 9 gold, 5 silver and 3 bronze.
Valeriy Borzov, the famous sprinter, won 2 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the 20th and 21st Olympic Games. Serhiy Bubka, eight times world champion in the pole vault and Olympic champion holds 35 world records. He has beeamed World’s Best Athlete.
Having just proclaimed its independence, Ukraine sent the national team to the 1994 Olympics. At the XVII Winter Games in Norway, young figure skater Oksana Baiul won the first gold medal for independent Ukraine.
At the 26th Olympic Games in Atlanta, Ukrainian a thletes won 9 gold medals, plus a score of silver and bronze.
The names of the winners have become known the world over: all around Olympic champion in gymnastics Lilia Podkopaieva; Olympic champion in women’s free-style gymnastics Katia Serebrianska; Olympic champion in Greco-Roman wrestling Viacheslav Olinyk; Olympic champion in weightlifting Tymur Taimazov; Olympic champion in boxing Volodymyr Kliuchko; Olympic champions yachtsmen Evhen Braslavets and Ihor Matvienko; Olympic champion track-and- field athlete Inessa Kravets, and others.
Life of youth in Ukraine
Life of youth in Ukraine is determined by the economic, social and political life of the country. The economic crisis in Ukraine has led to unemployment of many people and especially youth. As a result of it the criminal situation has immensely changed for the worse. That’s why Ukrainian government took special measures for the foundation of youth organizations in Ukraine. And such organizations have been found. They are “The Students’ League”, “Young Socialists”, “Green Peace”, and various youth clubs which unite young people according to their interests.
“The Students’ League” is aimed at solving various students’ problems, including economic ones. The members of this league organize youth forums, festivals and group meetings. This organization also maintains friendly ties with the universities and colleges of such countries as the USA, Great Britain, France, Germany and Holland. These ties include students’ exchanges on educational and cultural programmes.
“Young Socialists” is the organization of young people who share the views of socialism. They participate in the movement of socialist organizations abroad and support the policy pursued by the Socialist Party of Ukraine.
A lot of young people in Ukraine are active in the movement of “the greens”. They organize various actions of protest against the pollution of environment. The members of the “Green Peace” organization stand for preserving safe environment. They fight against the destruction of flora and fauna on the Earth.
Youth clubs of different interests have come into being these days. They unite music fans, sports fans, theatregoers, amateur performance groups and others. Besides, there is the “All-Ukrainian Association of Young Businessmen”, who try to find their own way of raising the country out of the economic crisis.
Problems of youth in Ukraine
What is modern Ukrainian youth? What do the young Ukrainians want, what problems do they face with and how do they solve them?
Here are the main results of the sociological surveys. The main problems are not new and have been known long ago. They are: unhealthy way of life, alcohol and drug addiction. Unemployment, migration and low level of education are also present.
Health of modern young people is getting worth from year to year, and death is becoming more frequent. Bad habits are very popular among youth. Many girls and boys start smoking in early age. About 30% before 14 years old, 36% – before 16 year old.
Sedentary lifestyle threatens health of young people as well. More than third of Ukrainians suffer obesity by age 30-35. Only 18% of young people do sport regularly. The rest of Ukrainian youth either do not do it at all or do it irregularly. As a result Ukrainian schoolchildren suffer vegetative-vascular dystonia and postural disorder.
Young Ukrainians do not hurry to marry and to have children. The majority of young people plan to make families only after graduation and employment. That tendency is influenced mainly by housing problems, which is still the biggest problem for youth in Ukraine and for the country in general. There are no efficient mechanisms for gaining new/rented living spaces for young people. More than half of young families live with their parents, and only 4% do it of their own free will. The rest simply do not have where to live have to rent the flat or to live in dormitories or to live with parents or other relatives.
After the graduation from the university only 48% of young specialists find the job by profession.
The lack of affordable housing, unemployment and low salaries force young Ukrainians to migrate. The cream of the Ukrainian society leave the country at the age of 24- 27.
Literature of Ukraine
The literature of Ukraine has a 1,000-year history. Of great importance for the growth of literature was the establishment in Lviv of the first printing press by Ivan Fedorov in 1574.
In the late 1700’s, Ivan Kotliarevsky wrote the famous epic poem “Eneida”.
Full of Ukrainian folk witticisms, realistic portraits and aphoristic characters, it was hugely successful. Kotliarevsky had an ear for idiomatic language, and an eye for details.
The appearance of Taras Shevchenko’s Kobzar (1840) ushered in an epoch of romanticism and national consciousness. Taras Shevchenko reflected the hopes and aspirations of the nation in the best folk poetic tradition.
Realism flourished in the nineteenth century. I. Nechui- Levytskyi and P. Myrny were masters of realistic prose. The end of the nineteenth century produced literary giants such as Ivan Franko and Lesia Ukrainka, who with their fighting spirit spurred Ukrainians on in their struggle for self-realization. At the close of the century, modernism took the place of realism. M. Kotsiubynskyi, with his impressionistic style of Writing, illustrates the transition from realism to the exploration of the psyche.
The twentieth century began with Renaissance in literature (192CTs). Many literary groups and organizations formed; new, young writers’ works were published; fresh magazines appeared. Some prominent names from this period: M. Kulish, M. Khvylovyi, M. Zerov, V. Sosiura. By the 1930’s the great terror began, with its purges, show trials and repression. Most of the writers were either killed or driven to suicide. It is estimated that over 250 writers perished during this period. Those who survived (V. Sosiura, P. Tychyna, M. Rylsky) were forced to renounce their former work and to write on themes suitable for the Communist Party. Despite the violent deaths of so many writers, Ukrainian literature gave the world such well-knowames as O. Honchar and a writer and a film director O. Dovzhenko.
A group of writers from the 1960’s, known as the “Shestydesiatnyky” (“The Sixtiers”) took advantage of a political thaw initiated by Khrushchev after the death of Stalin, and revitalized Ukrainian literature. Prominent among these are: L. Kostenko, V. Symonenko, H. Tiutiunnyk, D. Pavlychko, I, Drach, I. Dziuba, V. Stus, I. Svitlychnyi, Ie. Sverstiuk, V. Shevchuk.
Today, Ukrainian literature is continuing to develop.
Art in Ukraine
Ukrainian painters, singers, actors and composers are knowot only in Ukraine but also in the world. Ukrainians are known to be musical people. Ukrainian music has a long history. In Ukraine three kinds of music developed during the Middle Ages. The first was music performed during festivals and banquets at the courts of the princes and boyars. Wandering musicians and actors, called skomorokhy, entertained their listeners with the songs and acrobatic tricks. Church music is the second type of music. It came to Ukraine from Byzantium and Bulgaria. Religious music developed mainly in the center of Ukraine, in Kyiv. The third type of music consists of folk songs. Ukrainian folk songs were connected with calendar changes: the New Year carols, rusalka songs and so on.
Now there are many different types of music in Ukraine : pop music, rock music, jazz and others. Ukrainian ballet companies, choirs, symphony orchestras and solo performers often appear on tours in Europe, Asia and America.
Frescoes and icons are the oldest printings in Ukraine. The first portraits, which were used not for religious purposes appeared in the 17th century. Mainly Cossack hetmans and officers were portrayed. Many Ukrainian painters studied in St. Peterburg. After that many of them stayed in Russia and continued their carrier there. The only exception was T. Shevchenko. He devoted most of his paintings (like his writings) to Ukrainian interests. He is the father of modern Ukrainian painting. T. Shevchenko painted numerous portraits, self-portraits, and landscapes. Besides T. Shevchenko, Ukraine has many famous painters, like I.Repin, I. Kramskoi, M. Pymonenko and others. Nowadays many other paining styles have their representatives in Ukraine
Ukrainian theatre started also with skomorokhy. The European medieval theatre, the Renaissance and classicism influenced its future development. Ukrainian theatre gained its popularity during the 19th century. The first plays in Ukrainian language were staged by Poltava Free Theatre in 1819. Many Ukrainian landlords organized serf theaters at their estates. In their theatres Ukrainian plays were performed. The times of the Soviet rule were not easy for Ukrainian theater. Over the past few years the Ukrainian theatre is on the wave of national revival. Many youth theatres, musical comedies have appeared. Among theatre stars are B. Stupka, A. Rohovtseva and many others.
Holidays in Ukraine
Each country has its own customs, traditions, holidays and important days in its history. Talking of holidays in Ukraine we can’t but tell about everybody’s favourite New Year Holiday. People think that at night on New Year’s eve the old year with all its troubles leaves us forever and the New Year with all our hopes and expectations knocks at our doors. People decorate the Christmas tree, have New Year parties and prepare presents for their relatives and friends.
On the eve of January the 7th, Ukrainians start celebrating Christmas. It’s the day of Jesus Christ’s birthday and it is widely celebrated all over Ukraine. People sing Christmas carols, cook a traditional Ukrainian Christmas dish, named “kutya” and all the family gathers together to eat it. Then people go to church to listen to the Christmas sermon.
Not long ago Ukrainians began to celebrate a new holiday, St. Valentine’s Day. It’s the day of lovers, when we give special cards and presents to our sweethearts. This traditional holiday came into Ukraine from the English-speaking countries.
March the 8th, is Women’s Day. This date was introduced in 1910 by the 2-nd International Conference of women-socialists at the proposal of Clara Tsetkin as a day of the international solidarity of women in their struggle for economic, political and social equality. Nowadays this date has lost its political meaning and became just the day when we congratulate and thank our women for everything they do for us at home and at work, say our good wishes, give them flowers and presents.
Easter Day comes according to the lunar calendar. It’s the Day of Jesus Christ’s Resurrection. People celebrate this Holiday because He died on the Cross for our salvation. They go to churches to listen to sermons, gather at homes to pray and thank Jesus Christ for our salvation from eternal death into eternal life with Him in Heaven.
On May the 9th, we celebrate the anniversary of Victory over Nazi Germany. People go to the Tombs of the Unknown Soldier who died at war defending our country from fascists, put flowers to the monuments, and in the evening everybody goes to see the holiday salute.
On August the 24th, we celebrate the Day of Independence of Ukraine, which was proclaimed in 1991 on the decision of the Supreme Soviet of Ukraine after the military coup in Moscow.
On November the 7th and the 8th, we commemorate the anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution. History isn’t something to be rewritten. Millions of people died in an attempt to realize their own ideas of the best state system. We aren’t to judge anybody, we are just to pray for the peace of their souls.
On the 1st of May we celebrate the holiday of spring, nature awakening and beauty. We also like our holidays because we always have our family reunion on these days.
Ukrainian Cuisine
It is a bit difficult and thankless task to describe a cuisine of any country. It is much more pleasant to taste it once than to talk or to read about it. And the Ukrainian cuisine is really worth tasting. It is considered to be one of the richest national cuisines. The recipes of traditional Ukrainian dishes are very popular and known abroad.
The large number of components is the feature that can characterize the Ukrainian dishes. The basic ingredients are potatos, beets, onions, mushrooms, carrots, cabbages and pepper. For example, borsch – the traditional dish in Ukraine – contains 20 ingredients. The thermal processing of the products of the dishes is also peculiar. Several types of thermal processing are used for food preparing. They are not complicated – frying, boiling, stewing and baking. The number of different fruits and berries, as well as fish, meat and poultry are used in the Ukrainian recipes. Pork is the most common meat product and it is present in large amount in the dishes of first courses.
Borsch is considered to be the national dish of Ukraine. It’s an aromatic and appetizing beet-based soup. A typical Ukrainian borsch contains meat, beetroot, carrot, onion, potato and cabbage. It may contain up to 20 ingredients, depending from the season and region.
Cereals are also very popular: pumpkin, buckwheat, millet etc.
Floury foods take rather important place in Ukrainian recipes: dumplings, grechanyky, curds, pancakes, verguny, puchkenyky and others, Boiled dumplings are varenyky. Usually they are made of boiled dough and filled with meat, mashed potatoes, cabbage, mushrooms , sweetened cottage cheese or berries. Varenyky can be accompanied by sour crиme or butter.
Many Ukrainians prefer cooking in ceramic pots. The food cooked in such pots is very tasteful: potatoes with meat and prunes, roast meat, curbs with sour cream, etc.
Ukrainian cuisine is considered to be a symbol of Ukrainiaation hospitality. It is the honest truth that Ukrainians treat a gust like a member of the family and it is an affair of honor for any housemaster or housewife to receive and feed a guest. Ukrainian cuisine is the cultural heritage of the Ukrainiaation, like their faith, folklore and language.
Places to see in Ukraine
There are many places worth sightseeing on the territory of Ukraine because of its ancient history.
A wide range of interesting things awaits the tourists, beginning with Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine, where there exist magnificent historic sights, St. Sophia Cathedral (1017-1031), the Kyiv Cave Monastery (1051) and numerous museums.
A cruise on the Dnipro River offers visitors a fascinating introduction to Ukraine’s history and culture.
One of historic places is Zaporizhzhia where Cossack movement began in the 15th century. Nearby is the famous 700- year-old oak tree- 36 metres high.
Odessa, a regional centre and seaport, has seven theatres, a philharmonic orchestra, choir, the Opera and Ballet Theatre.
The old town of Kaniv is situated on the high right bank of the Dnipro River. This town is World-known for its Tarasova Hora. Taras Shevchenko, the great Ukrainian poet, artist and philosopher is buried here.
Chernihiv is one of the oldest towns in our country. There are five out of twenty-five architectural landmarks of the 11th–12th centuries preserved in Chernihiv. It was one of the most important centres of Kyivan Rus.
Another place in Ukraine, which attracts a lot of visitors, is Uman. It is famous for its dendrologic park-reserve “Sophiyivka”. This park was set up in the period of 1796- 1801 by Count Pototsky for his wife, Sophia, and was called after her name. The park is one of the most outstanding monuments of garden architecture in Ukraine.
Lviv, a beautiful city in the west of Ukraine, was founded by Prince Danylo Halytsky, Historically, it is first mentioned in 1256. Today Lviv has an area of 155 square km. Its core is the city of the 14th-18th centuries. It is densely built up with tall stone buildings, many of them in their original style. The Lychakiv Cemetery contains some famous monuments to well-known Ukrainian and Polish residents of Lviv. The oldest monument in Lviv is the foundation and walls of St. Nicholas’s Church, built by Prince Danylo in the 13th century. The remnants of Vysoky Zamok date back to the 13th century. Lviv is the only city in Ukraine that still has some original Renaissance architecture.
In the south the Crimea lies, with its warm weather, seashore sanatoriums and rest homes, which has much to offer tourists.
Travelling across Ukraine one can have an excellent opportunity to learn its history and culture, to see its ancient monuments and picturesque views Ukraine has always been famous for.
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The traditional view (mostly influenced by Russian and Polish historiography) on the etymology of Ukraine is that it came from the old Slavic term ukraina which meant “border region” or “frontier” and thus corresponded to the Western term march. The term can be often found in Eastern Slavic chronicles from 1187 on, but for a long time it referred not solely to the border lands in present-day Ukraine. The plural term ukrainy was used as well in the Grand Duchy of Moscow as in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 16th and 17th centuries, this term was applied to the lands across the border to the nomad world (Crimean Khanate). Frequent raids from the steppe made life in such regions a special and dangerous challenge. With the migration of the Great Abatis Belt southwards, the application of the term switched to Sloboda Ukraine and then to Central Ukraine. Over time it gained an ethnic meaning, as applied to the local South Rus’ (Little Russia in the ecclesiasticand the imperial Russian terminology).
Many contemporary Ukrainian historians translate the term “u-kraine” as “in-land”, “home-land” or “our-country”. The accompanying claim that it always had a strictly separate meaning to “borderland” (ukraina vs. okraina) is considered inconsistent with a number of historical sources, often of other than Ukrainian origin. The translation as “borderland” agrees with the traditional Russian-language meaning of “у-” (u-) and “краина” (kraina).
Though the form “the Ukraine” was once the more common term in English, it has become less accepted after the Ukrainian government officially requested that the article be dropped in 1993, shortly after independence. Most sources have since dropped the article in favour of simply “Ukraine”.
Human settlement in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BCE, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains. By 4,500 BCE, the Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished in a wide area that included parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper–Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians. Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia.
Later, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia, and Hermonassa, were founded, beginning in the 6th century BC, on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, and thrived well into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s AD. In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was the center of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.
Kievan Rus’ was founded by the Rus’ people, Varangians who first settled around Ladoga and Novgorod, then gradually moved southward eventually reaching Kiev about 880. Kievan Rus’ included the western part of modern Ukraine, Belarus, with larger part of it situated on the territory of modern Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus’ elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.
During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe.[32] In the following centuries, it laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians. Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus’.
Map of the Kievan Rus’ in the 11th century.
The Varangians later assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the Rus’ first dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty. Kievan Rus’ was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid Princes. The seat of Kiev, the most prestigious and influential of all principalities, became the subject of many rivalries among Rurikids as the most valuable prize in their quest for power.
The Golden Age of Kievan Rus’ began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who turned Rus’ toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus’ reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power. This was followed by the state’s increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus’ finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav’s death.
In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north. The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus’. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240. On today’s Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus’ was succeeded by the principalities of Halych and Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which were merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.
In the centuries following the Mongol invasion, much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and since the Union of Lublin (1569) by Poland
In the mid-14th century and upon death of Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia, king Casimir III of Poland started campaigns (1340-1366) for Galicia-Volhynia, while the heartland of Rus’, including Kiev, became the territory of the Grand Dutchy of Lithuania starting with Gediminas and his successors after the Battle on the Irpen’ River. Following the 1386 Union of Krewo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, much of what became northern Ukraine was ruled by the increasingly Slavicised local Lithuaniaobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and by 1392 so called Galicia–Volhynia Wars ended. Polish colonisation of depopulated lands of northern and central Ukraine begun, numerous new towns were founded and old towns refounded. In 1430 Podolia became incorporated into the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as Podolian Voivodeship. In 1441, in the southern Ukraine, especially Crimea and surrounding steppes, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate.
By 1569, the Union of Lublin formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and a significant part of Ukrainian territory was transferred from Duchy of Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, thus becoming Polish territory de jure. Under the demografic, cultural and political pressure of Polonisation begun already in late 14th century, many upper-class people of Polish Ruthenia (another term for the land of Rus) converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility. Thus, the commoners (peasants and town people), deprived of their native protectors among Rus nobility, eventually turned for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks, who by 17th century became fiercely Orthodox. The Cossacks tended to turn to violence against those they perceived as enemies, particularly the Polish state and its representatives.
In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was established by the Dnieper Cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing Polish serfdom. Poland had little real control of this land, yet they found the Cossacks to be a useful fighting force against the Turks and Tatars,[39] and at times the two allied in military campaigns. However, the continued enserfment of peasantry by the Polish nobility, emphasized by the Commonwealth’s fierce exploitation of the workforce, and most importantly, the suppression of the Orthodox Church pushed the allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland.
The Cossacks aspired to have representation in Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were all vehemently rejected by the Polish nobility, who had power in the Sejm. The Cossacks eventually turned for protection to Orthodox Russia, a decision which would later lead towards the downfall of the Polish–Lithuanian state, and the preservation of the Orthodox Church and in Ukraine.
Bohdan Khmelnytsky, “Hetman of Ukraine”, established an independent Ukraine after the uprising in 1648 against Poland
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir. Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Muscovite Russia as Rada faced the alternatives of subjection to Poland, allegiance to Turkey, or allegiance to Muscovy and chose the latter as the Cossack Hetmanate as recorded in the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav. There followed the Russo-Polish War which ended in 1667. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century by Prussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western Ukrainian Galicia was taken over by Austria.
The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the 18th century; at one point it even succeeded, under the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, to devastate Moscow. The Russian population of the borderlands suffered annual Tatar invasions and tens of thousands of soldiers were required to protect the southern boundaries. From the beginning of the 16th century until the end of 17th century the Crimean Tatar raider bands made almost annual forays into agricultural Slavic lands searching for captives to sell as slaves. According to Orest Subtelny, “from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy.” In 1688, Tatars captured a record number of 60,000 Ukrainians. This was a heavy burden for the state, and slowed its social and economic development. Since Crimean Tatars did not permit settlement of Russians to southern regions where the soil is better and the season is long enough, Muscovy had to depend on poorer regions and labour-intensive agriculture. Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia and Wallachia were also subjected to extensive slave raiding. The Crimean Khanate was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1778, bringing an end to the last Tatar state.
In 1657–1686 came “The Ruin,” a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, Turks and Cossacks for control of Ukraine, which occurred at about the same time as the Deluge of Poland. For three years, Khmelnytsky’s armies controlled present-day western and central Ukraine, but, deserted by his Tatar allies, he suffered a crushing defeat at Berestechko, and turned to the Russian tsar for help.
In 1654, Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Pereiaslav, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Czar. The wars escalated in intensity with hundreds of thousands of deaths. Defeat came in 1686 as the “Eternal Peace” between Russia and Poland gave Kiev and the Cossack lands east of the Dnieper over to Russian rule and the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper to Poland.
In 1709 Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1687–1709) sided with Sweden against Russia in the Great Northern War (1700–1721). Mazepa, a member of the Cossack nobility, received an excellent education abroad and proved to be a brilliant political and military leader enjoying good relations with the Romanov dynasty. After Peter the Great became czar, Mazepa as hetman gave him more than twenty years of loyal military and diplomatic service and was well rewarded.
Eventually Peter recognized that in order to consolidate and modernize Russia’s political and economic power it was necessary to do away with the hetmanate and Ukrainian and Cossack aspirations to autonomy. Mazepa accepted Polish invitations to join the Poles and Swedes against Russia. The move was disastrous for the hetmanate, Ukrainian autonomy, and Mazepa. He died in exile after fleeing from the Battle of Poltava (1709), where the Swedes and their Cossack allies suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of Peter’s Russian forces.
The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the Zaporizhska Sich abolished in 1775, as Russia centralized control over its lands. As part of the partitioning of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795, the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper were divided between Russia and Austria. From 1737 to 1834, expansion into the northern Black Sea littoral and the eastern Danube valley was a cornerstone of Russian foreign policy.
Lithuanians and Poles controlled vast estates in Ukraine, and were a law unto themselves. Judicial rulings from Cracow were routinely flouted, while peasants were heavily taxed and practically tied to the land as serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each other using armies of Ukrainian peasants. The Poles and Lithuanians were Roman Catholics and tried with some success to convert the Orthodox lesser nobility. In 1596 they set up the “Greek-Catholic” or Uniate Church, under the authority of the Pope but using Eastern rituals; it dominates western Ukraine to this day. Tensions between the Uniates and the Orthodox were never resolved, and the religious differentiation left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants leaderless, as they were reluctant to follow the Ukrainiaobles.
Cossacks led an uprising, called Koliivshchyna, starting in the Ukrainian borderlands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1768. Ethnicity as one root cause of this revolt, which included Ukrainian violence that killed tens of thousands of Poles and Jews. Religious warfare also broke out between Ukrainian groups. Increasing conflict between Uniate and Orthodox parishes along the newly reinforced Polish-Russian border on the Dnepr River in the time of Catherine II set the stage for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had become more Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region drew even closer into dependence on the Russian Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also reflected opposing Polish and Russian political allegiances.
After the Russians annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783, the region was settled by Ukrainian and Russian migrants. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest Russian state and church offices. At a later period, tsarists established a policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.
In the 19th century, Ukraine was a rural area largely ignored by Russia and Austria. With growing urbanization and modernization, and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and the political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.
After Ukraine and Crimea became aligned with the Russian Empire Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), significant German immigration occurred after it was encouraged by Catherine the Great and her immediate successors. Immigration was encouraged into Ukraine and especially the Crimea by Catherine in her proclamation of open migration to the Russian Empire. Immigration was encouraged for Germans and other Europeans to thin the previously dominant Turk population and encourage more complete use of farmland.
Beginning in the 19th century, there was a continuous migration from Ukraine to settle the distant areas of the Russian Empire. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.[51] Between 1896 and 1906, after the construction of the trans-Siberian railway, a total of 1.6 million Ukrainians migrated eastward.
Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late 19th century. Austrian Galicia, which enjoyed substantial political freedom under the relatively lenient rule of the Habsburgs, became the center of the nationalist movement.
Ukrainians entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. 3.5 million Ukrainians fought with the Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army. During the war, Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post World War I period (1919–23). Those suspected of Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly. Up to 5,000 supporters of the Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof, Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).
Mykhailo Hrushevskyi, President of the Ukrainian People’s Republic, was one of the most important figures of the Ukrainiaational revival of the early 20th century.
When World War I ended, several empires collapsed; among them were the Russian and Austrian empires. The Russian Revolution of 1917 ensued, and a Ukrainiaational movement for self-determination reemerged, with heavy Communist/Socialist influence. During 1917–20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Ukrainian People’s Republic, the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People’s Republic and the Hutsul Republic emerged briefly in the former Austro-Hungarian territory. This led to civil war, and an anarchist movement called the Black Army led by Nestor Makhno developed in Southern Ukraine during that war.
However, Poland defeated Western Ukraine in the Polish-Ukrainian War, but failed against the Bolsheviks in an offensive against Kiev. According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially incorporated into Poland, who in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919. Ukraine became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in December 1922.
The war in Ukraine continued for another two years; by 1921, however, most of Ukraine had been taken over by the Soviet Union, while Galicia and Volhynia were incorporated into independent Poland.
A powerful underground Ukrainiaationalist movement rose in Poland in the 1920s and 1930s, led by the Ukrainian Military Organization and the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The movement attracted a militant following among students and harassed the Polish authorities. Legal Ukrainian parties, the Ukrainian Catholic Church, an active press, and a business sector also flourished in Poland. Economic conditions improved in the 1920s, but the region suffered from the Great Depression in the 1930s.
Children affected by famine in Soviet-administered southern Ukraine
The civil war that eventually brought the Soviet government to power devastated Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless. In addition, Soviet Ukraine had to face the famine of 1921. Seeing an exhausted Ukraine, the Soviet government remained very flexible during the 1920s. Thus, under the aegis of the Ukrainization policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance in literature and the arts. The Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival, as Ukrainisation became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation) policy. The Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing. Women’s rights were greatly increased through new laws designed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities. Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early 1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated power to become the de facto communist party leader.
The communists gave a privileged position to manual labor, the largest class in the cities, where Russians dominated. The typical worker was more attached to class identity than to ethnicity. Although there were incidents of ethnic friction among workers (in addition to Ukrainians and Russians there were significant numbers of Poles, Germans, Jews, and others in the Ukrainian workforce), industrial laborers had already adopted Russian culture and language to a significant extent. Workers whose ethnicity was Ukrainian were not attracted to campaigns of Ukrainianization or de-Russification in meaningful numbers, but remained loyal members of the Soviet working class. There was no significant antagonism between workers identifying themselves as Ukrainian or Russian.
Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialisation and the republic’s industrial output quadrupled during the 1930s.
The industrialisation had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainiaation. To satisfy the state’s need for increased food supplies and to finance industrialisation, Stalin instituted a program of collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined the peasants’ lands and animals into collective farms and enforced the policies by the regular troops and secret police. Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until sometimes unrealistic quotas were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became more common. In 1932–33, millions starved to death in a famine known as Holodomor or “Great Famine”. Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and other countries recognise it as such.
The famine claimed up to 10 million Ukrainian lives as peasants’ food stocks were forcibly removed by the Soviet government by the NKVD secret police. Some explanations for the causes for the excess deaths in rural areas of Ukraine and Kazakhstan during 1931–34 has been given by dividing the causes into three groups: objective non-policy-related factors, like the drought of 1931 and poor weather in 1932; inadvertent result of policies with other objectives, like rapid industrialization, socialization of livestock, and neglected crop rotation patterns; and deaths caused intentionally by a starvation policy. The Communist leadership perceived famine not as a humanitarian catastrophe but as a means of class struggle and used starvation as a punishment tool to force peasants into collective farms. It was largely the same groups of individuals who were responsible for the mass killing operations during the civil war, collectivisation, and the Great Terror. These groups were associated with Efim Georgievich Evdokimov (1891–1939) and operated in Ukraine during the civil war, in the North Caucasus in the 1920s, and in the Secret Operational Division within General State Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31. Evdokimov transferred into Communist Party administration in 1934, when he became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. But he appears to have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov on security matters, and the latter relied on Evdokimov’s former colleagues to carry out the mass killing operations that are known as the Great Terror in 1937–38.
With Joseph Stalin’s change of course in the late 1920s, however, Moscow’s toleration of Ukrainiaational identity came to an end. Systematic state terror of the 1930s destroyed Ukraine’s writers, artists, and intellectuals; the Communist Party of Ukraine was purged of its “nationalist deviationists”. Two waves of Stalinist political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union (1929–34 and 1936–38) resulted in the killing of some 681,692 people; this included four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three-quarters of all the Red Army‘s higher-ranking officers.
Kiev suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied by Nazi Germany from September 19, 1941 until November 6, 1943
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the first time in its history was a decisive event in the history of the nation.
In 1940, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina in response to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these territorial gains were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.
German armies invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a “Hero City“, because the resistance by the Red Army and by the local population was fierce. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Western Front) were killed or taken captive there.
Although the wide majority of Ukrainians fought alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance, some elements of the Ukrainiaationalist underground created an anti-Soviet nationalist formation in Galicia, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (1942). At times it allied with the Nazi forces and, after the war, continued to fight the USSR. Using guerrilla war tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and terror those who they perceived as representing, or cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.
Museum of the Great Patriotic War
At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million to 7 million. The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about 50 percent being ethnic Ukrainians. Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army’s figures are very undependable, ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as much as 100,000 fighters.
Initially, some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939 under pressure, hailed the Germans as liberators. But brutal German rule in the occupied territories eventually turned its supporters against them. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the dissatisfaction of Ukraine with Stalinist political and economic policies. Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported men to work in forced labour camps in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine (along with Poland) to prepare it for German colonisation. They blockaded the transport of food on the Kiev River.
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front. It has been estimated that 93 percent of all German casualties took place on the Eastern Front. The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated between five and eight million, including over half a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis, 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians. Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainiaational holidays.
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed. The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–47, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure. The death toll of this famine varies, with even the lowest estimate in the tens of thousands.
In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations organization. The first Soviet computer, MESM, was built at the Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology and became operational in 1950.
Postwar ethnic cleansing occurred in the newly expanded Soviet Union. As of January 1, 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult “special deportees“, comprising 20% of the total. In addition, over 450,000 ethnic Germans from Ukraine and more than 200,000 Crimean Tatars were victims of forced deportations.
Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Having served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938–49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic; after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russiaations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated. Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production. During the 1946–1950 five-year plan, nearly 20% of the Soviet budget was invested in Soviet Ukraine, a 5% increase from prewar plans. As a result, the Ukrainian workforce rose 33.2% from 1940 to 1955 while industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same period.
Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production, and an important center of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev. He later ousted Khrushchev and became the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982. Many prominent Soviet sports players, scientists, and artists came from Ukraine.
On April 26, 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history. This was the only accident to receive the highest possible rating of 7 by the International Nuclear Event Scale, indicating a “major accident”, until the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011. At the time of the accident, 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.
After the accident, the new city of Slavutych was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency and World Health Organization attributed 56 direct deaths to the accident and estimated that there may have been 4,000 extra cancer deaths.
On July 16, 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine. The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainiaation, its democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August 1991, a conservative faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party’s power. After the attempt failed, on August 24, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.
A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90 percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first President of the country. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on December 8, followed by Alma Ata meeting on December 21, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
Although the idea of an independent Ukrainiaation had previously not existed in the 20th century in the minds of international policy makers, Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union. However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999 and suffered five-digit inflation rates. Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as the amounts of crime and corruption in Ukraine, Ukrainians protested and organised strikes.
The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady real economic growth averaging about seven percent annually. A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted under second President Leonid Kuchma in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticized by opponents for corruption, electoral fraud, discouraging free speech and concentrating too much power in his office. He also repeatedly transferred public property into the hands of loyal oligarchs.
Protesters at Independence Square on the first day of the Orange Revolution
In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled. The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome of the elections. This resulted in the peaceful Orange Revolution, bringing Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition. Yanukovych returned to a position of power in 2006, when he became Prime Minister in the Alliance of National Unity, until snap elections in September 2007 made Tymoshenko Prime Minister again. Yanukovych was elected President in 2010.
Disputes with Russia over the price of natural gas briefly stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in several other European countries.
With the proclamation of its independence on August 24, 1991, and adoption of a constitution on June 28, 1996, Ukraine became a semi-presidential republic. However, in 2004, deputies introduced changes to the Constitution, which tipped the balance of power in favour parliament. From 2004 to 2010, the legitimacy of the 2004 Constitutional amendments had official sanction, both with the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, and most major political parties. Despite this, on September 30, 2010 the Constitutional Court ruled that the amendments were null and void, forcing a return to the terms of the 1996 Constitution and again making Ukraine’s political system more presidential in character.
The ruling on the 2004 Constitutional amendments has become a major topic of political discourse. Much of the concern has been due to the fact that neither the Constitution of 1996 nor the Constitution of 2004 provides the ability to “undo the Constitution”, as the decision of the Constitutional Court would have it, even though the 2004 constitution arguably has an exhaustive list of possible procedures for constitutional amendments (articles 154–159). In any case, the current Constitution can arguably be modified only by a vote in Parliament.
The session chamber of the Verkhovna Rada, the Parliament of Ukraine
The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state. Ukraine’s legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada. The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, which is headed by the Prime Minister. However, the President still retains the authority to nominate the Ministers of the Foreign Affairs and of Defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the Prosecutor General and the head of the Security Service.
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the President in accordance with the proposals of the Prime-Minister. This system virtually requires an agreement between the President and the Prime-Minister, and has in the past led to problems, such as when President Yushchenko used a legally controversial ways to evade the law by appointing no actual governors or the local leaders, but so called ‘temporarily acting’ officers, thus evading the need to seek a compromise with the Prime-Minister. This practice was very controversial and required review by the Constitutional Court.
Ukraine has a large number of political parties, many of which have tiny memberships and are unknown to the general public. Small parties often join in multi-party coalitions (electoral blocs) for the purpose of participating in parliamentary elections.
Foreign relations
In 1999–2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union, which had asked for seats for all 15 of its union republics. Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made a substantial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.
Prime ministerMykola Azarov
(right) meets with President of Poland Bronisław Komorowski for talks in Warsaw
Ukraine currently considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective, but in practice balances its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union‘s Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force on March 1, 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement. The EU Common Strategy toward Ukraine, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine’s long-term aspirations but does not discuss association. On January 31, 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe—OSCE), and on March 10, 1992, it became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine also has a close relationship with NATO and had previously declared interest in eventual membership, this however was removed from the government’s foreign policy agenda, upon election of Viktor Yanukovych to the presidency, in 2010. It is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union. The Association Agreement with the EU was expected to be signed into effect by the end of 2011, but the process has been suspended as of 2012 due to recent political developments.
Ukraine maintains peaceful and constructive relations with all its neighbours; it has especially close ties with Russia and Poland, although relations with the former are complicated by energy dependence and payment arrears.
Administrative divisions
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country’s status as a unitary state (as stated in the country’s constitution) with unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit.
Ukraine is subdivided into twenty-four oblasts (provinces) and one autonomous republic (avtonomna respublika), Crimea. Additionally, the cities of Kiev, the capital, and Sevastopol, both have a special legal status. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 490 raions (districts), or second-level administrative units. The average area of a Ukrainian raion is 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi); the average population of a raion is 52,000 people.
Urban areas (cities) can either be subordinated to the state (as in the case of Kiev and Sevastopol), the oblast or raion administrations, depending on their population and socio-economic importance. Lower administrative units include urban-type settlements, which are similar to rural communities, but are more urbanized, including industrial enterprises, educational facilities, and transport connections, and villages.
In Soviet times, the economy of Ukraine was the second largest in the Soviet Union, being an important industrial and agricultural component of the country’s planned economy. With the dissolution of the Soviet system, the country moved from a planned economy to a market economy. The transition process was difficult for the majority of the population which plunged into poverty. Ukraine’s economy contracted severely following the years after the Soviet dissolution. Day to day life for the average person living in Ukraine was a struggle. A significant number of citizens in rural Ukraine survived by growing their own food, often working two or more jobs and buying the basic necessities through the barter economy.
In 1991, the government liberalised most prices to combat widespread product shortages, and was successful in overcoming the problem. At the same time, the government continued to subsidise state-run industries and agriculture by uncovered monetary emission. The loose monetary policies of the early 1990s pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels. For the year 1993, Ukraine holds the world record for inflation in one calendar year. Those living on fixed incomes suffered the most. Prices stabilised only after the introduction of new currency, the hryvnia, in 1996.
The country was also slow in implementing structural reforms. Following independence, the government formed a legal framework for privatisation. However, widespread resistance to reforms within the government and from a significant part of the population soon stalled the reform efforts. A large number of state-owned enterprises were exempt from the privatisation process.
In the meantime, by 1999, the GDP had fallen to less than 40 percent of the 1991 level. It recovered considerably in the following years, but still doesn’t reach historical maximum. In the early 2000s, the economy showed strong export-based growth of 5 to 10 percent, with industrial production growing more than 10 percent per year. Ukraine was hit by the economic crisis of 2008 and in November 2008, the IMF approved a stand-by loan of $16.5 billion for the country.
Ukraine’s 2010 GDP (PPP), as calculated by the CIA, is ranked 38th in the world and estimated at $305.2 billion. Its GDP per capita in 2010 according to the CIA was $6,700 (in PPP terms), ranked 107th in the world. Nominal GDP (in U.S. dollars, calculated at market exchange rate) was $136 billion, ranked 53rd in the world. By July 2008 the average nominal salary in Ukraine reached 1,930 hryvnias per month. Despite remaining lower than ieighbouring central European countries, the salary income growth in 2008 stood at 36.8 percent According to the UNDP in 2003 4.9% of the Ukrainian population lived under 2 US dollar a day and 19.5% of the population lived below the national poverty line that same year. According to the World Bank in 2010 only 0.1% of population lived under 2 US dollar a day.
Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft. Antonov airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries. The majority of Ukrainian exports are marketed to the European Union and CIS.[160] Since independence, Ukraine has maintained its own space agency, the National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU). Ukraine became an active participant in scientific space exploration and remote sensing missions. Between 1991 and 2007, Ukraine has launched six self made satellites and 101 launch vehicles, and continues to design spacecraft.
The country imports most energy supplies, especially oil and natural gas, and to a large extent depends on Russia as its energy supplier. While 25 percent of the natural gas in Ukraine comes from internal sources, about 35 percent comes from Russia and the remaining 40 percent from Central Asia through transit routes that Russia controls. At the same time, 85 percent of the Russian gas is delivered to Western Europe through Ukraine.
The World Bank classifies Ukraine as a middle-income state. Significant issues include underdeveloped infrastructure and transportation, corruption and bureaucracy. In 2007 the Ukrainian stock market recorded the second highest growth in the world of 130 percent. According to the CIA, in 2006 the market capitalization of the Ukrainian stock market was $111.8 billion.
Ukrainian administrative divisions by monthly salary
Growing sectors of the Ukrainian economy include the information technology (IT) market, which topped all other Central and Eastern European countries in 2007, growing some 40 percent.[167] Ukraine ranks fourth in the world iumber of certified IT professionals after the United States, India and Russia
Ukraine has a very large heavy-industry base and is one of the largest refiners of metallurgical products in Eastern Europe. However, the country is also well known for its production of high-technological goods and transport products, such as Antonov aircraft and various private and commercial vehicles. The country’s largest and most competitive firms are components of the PFTS index which is traded on the PFTS Ukraine Stock Exchange.
Well known Ukrainian brands include, amongst others, Naftogaz Ukrainy, AvtoZAZ, PrivatBank, Roshen, Yuzhmash, Nemiroff, Motor Sich, Khortytsa, Kyivstar, and Aerosvit.
Dnipropetrovsk’s central business district
Ukraine is regarded as being a developing economy with high potential for future success, however such a development is thought to be likely only with new all-encompassing economic and legal reforms. Although Foreign Direct Investment in Ukraine has remained relatively strong ever since recession of the early 1990s, the country has had trouble maintaining stable economic growth. Issues relating to current corporate governance in Ukraine are primarily linked to the large scale monopolisation of traditional heavy industries by wealthy individuals such as Rinat Akhmetov, the enduring failure to broaden the nation’s economic base and a lack of effective legal protection for investors and their products. Despite all this, Ukraine’s economy is still expected to grow by around 3.5% in 2010.
Most of the Ukrainian road system has not been upgraded since the Soviet era, and is now outdated. The Ukrainian government has pledged to build some 4,500 km (2,800 mi) of motorways by 2012. In total, Ukrainian paved roads stretch for 164,732 kilometres (102,360 mi). The network of major routes, marked with the letter ‘M’ for ‘International’, extends nationwide and connects all the major cities of Ukraine as well as providing cross-border routes to the country’s neighbours. Currently there are only two true motorway standard highways in Ukraine; a 175 kilometres (109 miles) stretch of motorway from Kharkiv to Dnipropetrovsk, and a section of the M03 which extends 18 km (11 mi) from Kiev to Boryspil, where the city’s international airport is located.
Rail transport in Ukraine plays the role of connecting all major urban areas, port facilities and industrial centres with neighbouring countries. The heaviest concentration of railroad track is located in the Donbas region of Ukraine. Although the amount of freight transported by rail fell by 7.4 percent in 1995 in comparison with 1994, Ukraine is still one of the world’s highest rail users. The total amount of railroad track in Ukraine extends for 22,473 kilometres (13,964 mi), of which 9,250 kilometres (5,750 mi) is electrified. Currently the state has a monopoly on the provision of passenger rail transport, and all trains, other than those with cooperation of other foreign companies on international routes, are operated by its company ‘Ukrzaliznytsia’.
Rail transport is heavily utilised in Ukraine
The aviation section in Ukraine is developing very quickly, having recently established a visa-free program for EU nationals and citizens of a number of other Western nations, the nation’s aviation sector is handling a significantly increased number of travellers. Additionally, the granting of the Euro 2012 football tournament to Poland and Ukraine as joint hosts has prompted the government to invest huge amounts of money into transport infrastructure, and in particular airports.
Kiev Boryspil is the county’s largest international airport; it has a total of three main passenger terminals and is the base for both of Ukraine’s national airlines. Other large airports in the country include those in Kharkiv, Lviv and Donetsk (all of which have recently constructed, modern terminals and aviation facilities), whilst those in Dnipropetrovsk and Odessa have plans for terminal upgrades in the near future. Ukraine has a number of airlines, the largest of which are the nation’s flag carriers, Aerosvit and UIA. Antonov Airlines, a subsidiary of the Antonov Aerospace Design Bureau is the only operator of the world’s largest fixed wing aircraft, the An-225.
International maritime travel is mainly provided through the Port of Odessa, from where ferries sail regularly to Istanbul, Varna and Haifa. The largest ferry company presently operating these routes is Ukrferry.
Ukraine produces and processes its owatural gas and petroleum. However, the majority of these commodities are imported (and transited), mostly from Russia. Natural gas is heavily utilized not only in energy production but also by steel and chemical industries of the country, as well as by the district heating sector. In 2012, Shell started exploration drilling for shale gas in Ukraine—a project aimed at the nation’s total gas supply independence.
Ukraine has sufficient coal reserves and increases its use in electricity generation.
Ukraine is a net energy exporting country (in 2011, 3.3% of electricity produced were exported)[181] but also one of Europe’s largest energy consumers. As of 2011, 47,6% of total electricity generation in Ukraine was coming from nuclear power,[181] with the country receiving most of its nuclear fuel from Russia. The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is located in Ukraine. Coal– and gas-fired thermal power station and hydroelectricity are the second and third largest kinds of power generation in the country.
The share of renewables within the total energy mix of Ukraine is still very small, but is growing fast. Total installed capacity of renewable energy installations more than doubled in 2011 and now stands at 397 MW. In 2011 several large solar power stations were opened in Ukraine, among them Europe’s largest solar park in Perovo, (Crimea). Ukrainian State Agency for Energy Efficiency and Conservation forecasts that combined installed capacity of wind and solar power plants in Ukraine could increase by another 600 MW in 2012. According to Macquarie Research, by 2016 Ukraine will construct and commissioew solar power stations with a total capacity of 1.8 GW, which is almost equivalent to the capacity of two nuclear reactors.
The Economic Bank for Reconstruction and Development estimates that Ukraine has great renewable energy potential: the technical potential for wind energy is estimated at 40 TWh/year, small hydropower stations at 8.3 TWh/year, biomass at 120 TWh/year, and solar energy at 50 TWh/year. In 2011, Ukraine’s Energy Ministry predicted that the installed capacity of generation from alternative and renewable energy sources would increase to 9% (about 6 GW) of the total electricity production in the country.
According to the constitution, the state language of Ukraine is Ukrainian. Russian is widely spoken, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine. According to the 2001 census, 67.5 percent of the population declared Ukrainian as their native language and 29.6 percent declared Russian. Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language. Russian was the de facto official language of the Soviet Union but both Russian and Ukrainian were official languages in the Soviet Union and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR learning Ukrainian was mandatory. Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitles any local language spoken by at least a 10% minority be declared official within that area. Russian was within weeks declared as a regional language in several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities. Russian caow be used in these cities/Oblasts administrative office work and documents.
Ukrainian is mainly spoken in western and central Ukraine. In western Ukraine, Ukrainian is also the dominant language in cities (such as Lviv). In central Ukraine, Ukrainian and Russian are both equally used in cities, with Russian being more common in Kiev, while Ukrainian is the dominant language in rural communities. In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is primarily used in cities, and Ukrainian is used in rural areas. These details result in a significant difference across different survey results, as even a small restating of a question switches responses of a significant group of people.
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly. Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the image and usage of Ukrainian language through a policy of Ukrainisation. Today, all foreign films and TV programs, including Russian ones, are subbed or dubbed in Ukrainian.
Percentage of native Ukrainian speakers by subdivision according to the 2001 census
Percentage of native Russian speakers by subdivision according to the 2001 census
According to the Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukrainian is the only state language of the republic. However, the republic’s constitution specifically recognises Russian as the language of the majority of its population and guarantees its usage ‘in all spheres of public life’. Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language (the language of 12 percent of population of Crimea) is guaranteed a special state protection as well as the ‘languages of other ethnicities’. Russian speakers constitute an overwhelming majority of the Crimean population (77 percent), with Ukrainian speakers comprising just 10.1 percent, and Crimean Tatar speakers 11.4 percent. But in everyday life the majority of Crimean Tatars and Ukrainians in Crimea use Russian.
Ukraine is a destination on the crossroads between central and Eastern Europe, betweeorth and south. It has mountain ranges – the Carpathian Mountains suitable for skiing, hiking, fishing and hunting. The coastline on the Black Sea is a popular summer destination for vacationers. Ukraine has vineyards where they produce native wines, ruins of ancient castles, historical parks, Orthodox and Catholic churches as well as a few mosques and synagogues. Kiev, the country’s capital city has many unique structures such as Saint Sophia Cathedral and broad boulevards. There are other cities well-known to tourists such as the harbour town Odessa and the old city of Lviv in the west. The Crimea, a little “continent” of its own, is a popular vacation destination for tourists for swimming or sun tanning on the Black Sea with its warm climate, rugged mountains, plateaus and ancient ruins. Cities there include: Sevastopol and Yalta – location of the peace conference at the end of World War II. Visitors can also take cruise tours by ship on Dnieper River from Kiev to the Black Sea coastline. Ukrainian cuisine has a long history and offers a wide variety of original dishes.
The Seven Wonders of Ukraine are the seven historical and cultural monuments of Ukraine; the sites were chosen by the general public through an internet-based vote.
According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001, ethnic Ukrainians make up 77.8% of the population. Other significant ethnic groups are theRussians (17.3%), Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5), Bulgarians (0.4), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.2), Armenians (0.2), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%). The industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most heavily populated, and about 67.2 percent of the population lives in urban areas.
In total, Ukraine has 457 cities, 176 of them are labeled oblast-class, 279 smaller raion-class cities, and two special legal status cities. These are followed by 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.
|
Largest cities or towns of Ukrain |
|||||||||
|
|
|
||||||||
|
1 |
2,786,518 |
11 |
470,152 |
||||||
|
2 |
1,440,676 |
12 |
398,058 |
||||||
|
3 |
1,003,705 |
13 |
369,200 |
||||||
|
4 |
1,001,612 |
14 |
359,551 |
||||||
|
5 |
977,257 |
15 |
380,301 |
||||||
|
6 |
776,918 |
16 |
340,525 |
||||||
|
7 |
758,351 |
17 |
298,492 |
||||||
|
8 |
670,068 |
18 |
296,896 |
||||||
|
9 |
499,659 |
19 |
287,591 |
||||||
|
10 |
489,702 |
20 |
272,899 |
||||||
The dominant religion in Ukraine is Orthodox Christianity, which is currently split between three Church bodies: the Ukrainian Orthodox Church autonomous church body under thePatriarch of Moscow, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate, and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.
“What religious group do you belong to?” Sociology poll by Razumkov Centre about the religious situation in Ukraine
A distant second by the number of the followers is the Eastern Rite Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, which practices a similar liturgicaland spiritual tradition as Eastern Orthodoxy, but is in communion with the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church and recognises the primacy of the Pope as head of the Church.
“What religious group do you belong to?” Sociology poll by Razumkov Centre about the religious situation in Ukraine (2006)
Additionally, there are 863 Latin Rite Catholic communities, and 474 clergy members serving some one million Latin Rite Catholics in Ukraine. The group forms some 2.19 percent of the population and consists mainly of ethnic Poles and Hungarians, who live predominantly in the western regions of the country.
Protestant Christians also form around 2.19 percent of the population. Protestant numbers have grown greatly since Ukrainian independence. The Evangelical Baptist Union of Ukraine is the largest group, with more than 150,000 members and about 3000 clergy. The second largest Protestant church is the Ukrainian Church of Evangelical faith (Pentecostals) with 110000 members and over 1500 local churches and over 2000 clergy, but there also exist other Pentecostal groups and unions and together all Pentecostals are over 300,000, with over 3000 local churches. Also there are many Pentecostal high education schools such as the Lviv Theological Seminary and the Kiev Bible Institute. Other groups include Calvinists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Lutherans, Methodists and Seventh-day Adventists. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) is also present.
There are an estimated 500,000 Muslims in Ukraine, and about 250,000 of them are Crimean Tatars.[209] There are 487 registered Muslim communities, 368 of them on the Crimean peninsula. In addition, some 50,000 Muslims live in Kiev; mostly foreign-born.
The Jewish population is a tiny fraction of what it was before World War II. (In Tsarist times, Ukraine had been part of the Pale of Settlement, to which Jews were largely restricted in the Russian Empire.) The largest Jewish communities in 1926 were in Odessa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; and Kiev, 140,500 or 27.3%. The 2001 census indicated that there are 103,600 Jews in Ukraine, although community leaders claimed that the population could be as large as 300,000. There are no statistics on what share of the Ukrainian Jews are observant, but Orthodox Judaism has the strongest presence in Ukraine. Smaller Reform and Conservative Jewish (Masorti) communities exist as well.
One 2006 survey put the number of non-religious in Ukraine at approximately 62.5% of the population.
Health
Ukraine’s healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide. The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.
All the country’s medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the Ministry of Health, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day to day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen
Hospitals in Ukraine are organised along the same lines as most European nations, according to the regional administrative structure; resultantly most towns have their own hospital (Міська Лікарня) and many also have district hospitals (Районна Лікарня). Larger and more specialised medical complexes tend only to be found in major cities, with some even more specialised units located only in the capital, Kiev. However, all Oblasts have their owetwork of general hospitals which are able to deal with almost all medical problems and are typically equipped with major trauma centres; such hospitals are called ‘regional hospitals’.
Ukraine currently faces a number of major public health issues, and is considered to be in a demographic crisis due to its high death rate and low birth rate (the current Ukrainian birth rate is 11 births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 16.3 deaths/1,000 population). A factor contributing to the relatively high death is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such as alcohol poisoning and smoking. In 2008, the country’s population was one of the fastest declining in the world at −5% growth. The UN warned that Ukraine’s population could fall by as much as 10 million by 2050 if trends did not improve. In addition to this obesity, systemic high blood pressure and the HIV endemic are all major challenges facing the contemporary Ukrainian healthcare system.
As of March 2009 the Ukrainian government to reforming the health care system, by the creation of a national network of family doctors and improvements in the medical emergency services. Former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko put forward (in November 2009) an idea to start introducing a public healthcare system based on health insurance in the spring of 2010.
The University of Kiev is one of Ukraine’s most important educational institutions
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis. There is also a small number of accredited private secondary and higher education institutions.
Because of the Soviet Union’s emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%. Since 2005, an eleven-year school program has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years. In the 12th grade, students take Government Tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions.
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population
The first higher education institutions (HEIs) emerged in Ukraine during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The first Ukrainian higher education institution was the Ostrozka School, or Ostrozkiy Greek-Slavic-Latin Collegium, similar to Western European higher education institutions of the time. Established in 1576 in the town of Ostrog, the Collegium was the first higher education institution in the Eastern Slavic territories. The oldest university was the Kyiv Mohyla Academy, first established in 1632 and in 1694 officially recognized by the government of Imperial Russia as a higher education institution. Among the oldest is also the Lviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities in Kharkiv (1805), Kiev (1834), Odessa (1865), andChernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and a Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, aPolytechnic Institute in Kiev (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid growth followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 a number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students Most HEIs established after 1990 are those owned by private organizations.
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments, scientificand methodological facilities under federal, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education. The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world’s higher developed countries, as is defined byUNESCO and the UN.
Nowadays higher education is either state funded or private. Students that study at state expense receive a standard scholarship if their average marks at the end-of-term exams and differentiated test is at least 4 (see the 5-point grade system below); this rule may be different in some universities. In the case of all grades being the highest (5), the scholarship is increased by 25%. For most students the level of government subsidy is not sufficient to cover their basic living expenses. Most universities provide subsidized housing for out-of-city students. Also, it is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. There are two degrees conferred by Ukrainian universities: the Bachelor’s Degree (4 years) and the Master’s Degree (5–6th year). These degrees are introduced in accordance with Bologna process, in which Ukraine is taking part. Historically, Specialist’s Degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in the Soviet times.
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Christianity, which is the dominant religion in the country. Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in raising children than in the West. The culture of Ukraine has been also influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, which is reflected in its architecture, music and art.
A collection of traditional pysanky fromVolyn
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine. In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree “On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations”. This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.
The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine. In the city of Kolomya near the foothills of the Carpathian mountains in 2000 was built the museum of Pysanka which won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action.
The history of Ukrainian literature dates back to the 11th century, following the Christianisation of the Kievan Rus’. The writings of the time were mainly liturgical and were written in Old Church Slavonic. Historical accounts of the time were referred to as chronicles, the most significant of which was the Primary Chronicle. Literary activity faced a sudden decline during the Mongol invasion of Rus’.
Ukrainian literature again began to develop in the 14th century, and was advanced significantly in the 16th century with the introduction of print and with the beginning of the Cossack era, under both Russian and Polish dominance. The Cossacks established an independent society and popularized a new kind of epic poems, which marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature. These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, when publishing in the Ukrainian language was outlawed and prohibited. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century modern literary Ukrainian finally emerged.
The 19th century initiated a vernacular period in Ukraine, led by Ivan Kotliarevsky’s work Eneyida, the first publication written in modern Ukrainian. By the 1830s, Ukrainianromanticism began to develop, and the nation’s most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged. Where Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.
Then, in 1863, use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectively prohibited by the Russian Empire. This severely curtained literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlled Galicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks’ coming to power.
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years, when nearly all literary trends were approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when Stalin implemented his policy of socialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the Ukrainian language, but it required writers to follow a certain style in their works. Literary activities continued to be somewhat limited under the communist party, and it was not until Ukraine gained its independence in 1991 when writers were free to express themselves as they wished.
Ukrainian architecture is a term that describes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and byUkrainians worldwide. These include initial roots which were established in the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus’. After the 12th century, the distinct architectural history continued in the principalities of Galicia-Volhynia. During the epoch of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, a new style unique to Ukraine was developed under the western influences of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the union with theTsardom of Russia, architecture in Ukraine began to develop in different directions, with many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area built in the styles of Russian architecture of that period, whilst the western Galicia was developed under Austro-Hungarian architectural influences, in both cases producing fine examples. Ukrainiaational motifs would finally be used during the period of theSoviet Union and in modern independent Ukraine.
The great churches of the Rus’, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of the Kievan state, which quickly established itself, was strongly influenced by the Byzantine. Early Eastern Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood, with the simplest form of church becoming known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often featured scores of small domes, which led some art historians to take this as an indication of the appearance of pre-Christian pagan Slavic temples.
The Lviv Opera and Ballet Theatre; the architecture of Western Ukraine has been greatly influenced by its long history as a part of Austria-Hungary and Poland
Several examples of these churches survive to this day; however, during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, many were externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style (see below). Examples include the grand St. Sophia of Kiev – the year 1017 is the earliest record of foundation laid, Church of the Saviour at Berestove – built from 1113 to 1125, and St. Cyril’s Church, circa 12th century. All can still be found in the Ukrainian capital. Several buildings were reconstructed during the late-19th century, including the Assumption Cathedral in Volodymyr-Volynskyi, built in 1160 and reconstructed in 1896–1900, the Paraskevi church in Chernihiv, built in 1201 with reconstruction done in the late 1940s, and the Golden gates in Kiev, built in 1037 and reconstructed in 1982. The latter’s reconstruction was criticized by some art and architecture historians as a revivalist fantasy. Unfortunately little secular orvernacular architecture of Kievan Rus’ has survived.
As Ukraine became increasingly integrated into the Russian Empire, Russian architects had the opportunity to realize their projects in the picturesque landscape that many Ukrainian cities and regions offered. St. Andrew’s Church of Kiev (1747–1754), built by Bartolomeo Rastrelli, is a notable example of Baroque architecture, and its location on top of the Kievan mountain made it a recognizable monument of the city. An equally notable contribution of Rasetrelli was the Mariyinsky Palace, which was built to be a summer residence to Russian EmpressElizabeth. During the reign of the last Hetman of Ukraine, Kirill Razumovsky, many of the Cossack Hetmanate‘s towns such as Hlukhiv,Baturyn and Koselets had grandiose projects built by the appointed architect of Little Russia, Andrey Kvasov. Russia, winning successive wars over the Ottoman Empire and its vassal Crimean Khanate, eventually annexed the whole south of Ukraine and Crimea. RenamedNew Russia, these lands were to be colonized, and new cities such as the Nikolayev, Odessa, Kherson and Sevastopol were founded. These would contain notable examples of Imperial Russian architecture.
In 1934, the capital of Soviet Ukraine moved from Kharkiv to Kiev. During the preceding years, the city was seen as only a regional centre, and hence received little attention. All of that was to change, but at a great price. By this point, the first examples of Stalinist architecturewere already showing, and, in light of the official policy, a new city was to be built on top of the old one. This meant that much-admired examples such as the St. Michael’s Golden-Domed Monastery were destroyed. Even the St. Sophia Cathedral was under threat. Also, the Second World War contributed to the wreckage. After the war, a new project for the reconstruction of central Kiev was unveiled. This transformed the Khreshchatyk avenue into one of the most notable examples of Stalinism in Architecture
. However, by 1955, the new politics of architecture once again promptly stopped the project from fully being realised.
Europe mall in Dnipropetrovsk, an example of modern architecture in Ukraine
The last raion reform took place in 2001 when the number of raions has been decreased from 14 to 10.
Kiev is home to some 40 different museums. In 2009 they recorded a total of 4.3 million visits.
Kyiv is situated on the hilly right bank and the low left bank of the Dnieper River.
THE IMPACT OF DR. HORBACHEVSKY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF UKRAINIAN SCIENCE
Medical school
Admissions
Program
Internship
Residency
formal training beyond residency. Examples of these include cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery; reproductive endocrinology/infertility, maternal-fetal medicine, gynecologic oncology after obstetrics/gynecology. There are many others for each field of study. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are fellows to denote that they already have completed a residency and are Board Eligible or Board certified in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board. Fellowships often contain a research component.
Continuing education
The functions of Participle II
The editorial office of all newspaper published in London are in Fleet street.
I have read all the novels written by Jack London.
· Participle II as an attribute
She collected all the pictures taken during their honey-moon and put them in an album.
Participle II in this function can be preceded by the preposition as.
This substance as described by the American scientists has a very complicated structure.
· Participle II in the function of an adverbial modifier.
o Participle II can be used as an adverbial modifier of time.
It is often preceded by the conjunction when here.
When questioned she would not answer.
The conjunction until also occurs here.
The letter will stay here until called for.
The trees were silent as if cut of marble.
o Participle II can be used as an adverbial modifier of condition often with the conjunction if.
I’ll tell them nothing unless asked.
Though crushed she was no broken.
· Participle II can be used as a predicative.
I was very surprised hearing this.
He was determined to win this contest.
· Participle II can is used in the Objective Participial construction.
I saw him admitted into the room.
The Perfect Tenses
The Present Perfect tense
I have not (yet) answered this letter (yet).
I’ve seen several interesting film of late.
I’ve just seen him = I just saw him.
· The Present Perfect is also used for announcements of something that has happened.
President’s daughter has kidnapped.
You will go for a walk after you have done all your lessons.
I have known him for about ten years.
I’ve been married for five years.
I’ve always preferred tragedy to comedy.
I’ve always preferred tragedy to comedy.
The theory of numbers has always attracted all gifted mathematicians.
The Past Perfect tense
· The Past Perfect denotes an action completed by a definite moment in the past.
They had completed the construction by the end of April.
When director returned from Vienna, we had completed writing our program.
· The Past Perfect is used to transfer from a moment in the past to further past.
I couldn’t remember the title of the article (which) he had recommended me to read.
He agreed to continue the work after they had paid him part of money.
She said that she had known him for a few years.
No sooner had I taken off my coat, than the phone rang.
Hardly had we set down at the table, when Boris came.
He looked through his field-glasses. The ships had left the port and were going North.
The Future Perfect tense
This tense denotes an action completed by a definite moment in the future.
We’ll have made this program by the end of April.
When Boris comes we’ll have gone to bed.
Note: One should be careful in using the Future Perfect with verbs and expressions denoting states.
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