Theme 10
“Representatives of the Hamamelididae and Dilleniidae subclasses
(the Beech, Birch, Cabbage, Heather, Primrose and other Families)
Subclasses Hamamelididae
The Beech Family (Fagaceae) agaceae: Beech or Oak Family
This family has about 800-1100 species in 8 genera. Most individuals in this family are Oaks. Oaks are well suited for somewhat dry conditions and can thus be found in areas where wet seasons are variable. Mexico has the largest number of oak species of any country in the world. Most are found in a zone below the pine forests but above the dry-scrub zones. Oaks are found in deciduous forest biomes. Acorns are from oak-like trees.
Growing up I remember picking up acorns and dissecting the nut from the husk. This is one of the most easily identifiable characters of individuals in this family. However, there are a fair few species of beeches and chestnuts whose seeds look quite different. Almost all species have seeds that are edible, even if it takes a bit of preparation to leech the tannins from them.
Another species of interest is the cork oak, Quercus suber. Corks for wine are harvested by hand from this species. One of the primarly places it is grown is in Spain and Portugal. Here a tree is first havested when it is 25 years old. The cork regenerates after about 10-12 years and can be reharvested again without killing the tree.
Plants are monoecius (meaning they have separate male and female flowers on the same tree). Male flowers have from 4-40 stamen, 4-6 sepals and 0 petals. Female flowers have 3 style branches and are either solitary or in small clusters; they have 4-6 sepals and 0 petals. Leaves are alternate and simple. Ovary is inferior.
A tannin (also known as vegetable tannin, natural organic tannins or sometimes tannoid, i.e. a type of biomolecule, as opposed to modern synthetic tannin) is anastringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound that binds to and precipitates proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids.
The term tannin (from tanna, an Old High German word for oak or fir tree, as in Tannenbaum) refers to the use of wood tannins from oak in tanning animal hides intoleather; hence the words “tan” and “tanning” for the treatment of leather. However, the term “tannin” by extension is widely applied to any large polyphenoliccompound containing sufficient hydroxyls and other suitable groups (such as carboxyls) to form strong complexes with various macromolecules.
The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth regulation.[1] The astringency from the tannins is what causes the dry and puckery feeling in the mouth following the consumption of unripened fruit or red wine.[2] Likewise, the destruction or modification of tannins with time plays an important role in the ripening of fruit and the aging of wine.
Tannins have molecular weights ranging from 500 to over 3,000[3] (gallic acid esters) and up to 20,000 (proanthocyanidins).
Structure and classes of tannins
There are three major classes of tannins: Shown below are the base unit or monomer of the tannin. Particularly in the flavone-derived tannins, the base shown must be (additionally) heavily hydroxylated and polymerized in order to give the high molecular weight polyphenol motif that characterizes tannins. Typically, tannin molecules require at least 12 hydroxyl groups and at least five phenyl groups to function as protein binders.
Pseudo tannins are low molecular weight compounds associated with other compounds. They do not change color during the Goldbeater’s skin test, unlike hydrolysable and condensed tannins, and cannot be used as tanning compounds.[4] Some examples of pseudo tannins and their sources are:[5]
Ellagic acid, gallic acid, and pyrogallic acid were first discovered by chemist Henri Braconnot in 1831.[6]:20 Julius Löwe was the first person to synthesize ellagic acid by heating gallic acid with arsenic acid or silver oxide.
Maximilian Nierenstein studied natural phenols and tannins[8] found in different plant species. Working with Arthur George Perkin, he prepared ellagic acid from algarobilla and certain other fruits in 1905.[9] He suggested its formation from galloyl–glycine by Penicillium in 1915.[10] Tannase is an enzyme that Nierenstein used to produce m-digallic acid from gallotannins.[11] He proved the presence of catechin incocoa beans in 1931.[12] He showed in 1945 that luteic acid, a molecule present in the myrobalanitannin, a tannin found in the fruit of Terminalia chebula, is an intermediary compound in the synthesis ofellagic acid.
At these times, molecule formulas were determined through combustion analysis.[citatioeeded] The discovery in 1943 by Martin and Synge of paper chromatography provided for the first time the means of surveying the phenolic constituents of plants and for their separation and identification.[citatioeeded] There was an explosion of activity in this field after 1945, none more so than that of Edgar Charles Bate-Smith and Tony Swain[14] at Cambridge University.
In 1966 Edwin Haslam proposed a first comprehensive definition of plant polyphenols based on the earlier proposals of Bate-Smith, Swain and White, which includes specific structural characteristics common to all phenolics having a tanning property. It is referred to as the White–Bate-Smith–Swain–Haslam (WBSSH) definition.
Tannins are distributed in species throughout the plant kingdom. They are commonly found in both gymnosperms as well as angiosperms. Mole[16] (1993) studied the distribution of tannin in 180 families ofdicotyledons and 44 families of monocotyledons (Cronquist). Most families of dicot contain tannin-free species (tested by their ability to precipitate proteins).
The best known families of which all species tested contain tannin are: Aceraceae, Actinidiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Bixaceae, Burseraceae, Combretaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Ericaceae, Grossulariaceae,Myricaceae for dicot and Najadaceae and Typhaceae in Monocot. To the family of the oak, Fagaceae, 73% of the species tested (N = 22) contain tannin. For those of acacias, Mimosaceae, only 39% of the species tested (N = 28) contain tannin, among Solanaceae rate drops to 6% and 4% for the Asteraceae. Some families like the Boraginaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Papaveraceae contaio tannin-rich species.
The most abundant polyphenols are the condensed tannins, found in virtually all families of plants, and comprising up to 50% of the dry weight of leaves. Tannins of tropical woods tend to be of a cathetic nature rather than of the gallic type present in temperate woods
There may be a loss in the bio-availability of still other tannins in plants due to birds, pests, and other pathogens.
Localization in plant organs
Tannins are found in leaf, bud, seed, root, and stem tissues. An example of the location of the tannins in stem tissue is that they are often found in the growth areas of trees, such as the secondary phloem and xylem and the layer between the cortex and epidermis. Tannins may help regulate the growth of these tissues.
Cellular localization
In all vascular plants studied so far, tannins are manufactured by a chloroplast-derived organelle, the tannosome.[19] Tannins are mainly physically located in the vacuoles or surface wax of plants. These storage sites keep tannins active against plant predators, but also keep some tannins from affecting plant metabolism while the plant tissue is alive; it is only after cell breakdown and death that the tannins are active in metabolic effects.
Tannins are classified as ergastic substances, i.e., non-protoplasm materials found in cells. Tannins, by definition, precipitate proteins. In this condition, they must be stored in organelles able to withstand the protein precipitation process. Idioblasts are isolated plant cells which differ from neighboring tissues and contaion-living substances. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments, and minerals. They could contain oil, latex, gum, resin or pigments etc. They also can contain tannins. In Japanese persimmon (Diospyros kaki) fruits, tannin is accumulated in the vacuole of tannin cells, which are idioblasts of parenchyma cells in the flesh.
Oak-tree (Quércus róbur) – deciduous tree growing to about 50 m tall, with spread crown. Bark grey-green and shiny at first and becoming thick and brown. Leaves are alternate, obovate, which 3-6 lobes at each side. Male and female flowers separate on same tree. Flowers are shallow. Male flowers are in drooping yellow-green catkins, female in spikes. Fruit – brown acorn (nut). Widely planted in parks and along roads, streets.
Active ingredients: tannins (to 20 %).
Uses: the bark as antiseptic and reduced bleeding (haemorrhage).
Further uses: acorns fed to pigs.
The Birch Family (Betulaceae)
All the 200 members of the Birch Family are woody plants (trees and bushes) which male and female flowers separate on same plant.
White birch (silver birch) (Bétula verrucósa) – deciduous tree growing to about 30 m tall, with branches tending to downwards. Bark is shiny-brown at first and becoming white with horizontal markings. Leaves are alternate, hairless, entire, triangular, to 4 cm long. Flowers are shallow. Male flowers are in drooping yellow-brown catkins, female in green catkins. Perianth is reduced. Fruit – browutlet.
Active ingredients: flavonoids, tannins, essential oils.
Uses: leaves and buds as antibacterial, for treating kidney complaints, rheumatism.
Further uses: sap of plant (the birch juice).
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, or aetherolea, or simply as the “oil of” the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An oil
is “essential” in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. Essential oils do not form a distinctive category for any medical, pharmacological, or culinary purpose.
Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression or solvent extraction. They are used in perfumes,cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.
Essential oils have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.
As the use of essential oils has declined in evidence-based medicine, one must consult older textbooks for much information on their use.[1][2] Modern works are less inclined to generalize; rather than refer to “essential oils” as a class at all, they prefer to discuss specific compounds, such as methyl salicylate, rather than “oil of wintergreen”.[3][4]
Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that claims that essential oils and other aromatic compounds have curative effects. Oils are volatilized or diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.
Today, most common essential oils — such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus — are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into analembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.
Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), which takes 22 hours to complete through a fractional distillation.
The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water,lemon balm, clary sage and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are therefore not sold.
Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry are even cheaper.
Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing.
Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression; their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexaneor supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvent are called concretes, which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil soluble) plant material.
Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of nonfragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, which is more polar iature, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by evaporation, leaving behind the absolute.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method has many benefits including avoiding petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some “top notes” when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue. An animated presentation describing the process is available for viewing.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is also used for making decaffeinated coffee. Although it uses the same basic principles, it is a different process because of the difference in scale.
Florasol (R134a), a refrigerant, was developed to replace Freon. Florasol is an ozone friendly product and it poses little danger to the environment. One advantage is that the extraction of essential oils occurs at or below room temperature so degradation through high temperature extremes does not occur. The essential oils are mostly pure and contain little to no foreign substances
Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990 and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[6]
Although some are suspicious or dismissive towards the use of essential oils in healthcare or pharmacology,[7] essential oils retain considerable popular use, partly in fringe medicine and partly in popular remedies. Therefore it is difficult to obtain reliable references concerning their pharmacological merits.
Studies have shown that certain essential oils may have the ability to prevent the transmission of some drug-resistant strains of pathogen, specifically Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Candida.
Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. In the stomach, the effect is carminative, relaxing the gastric sphincter and encouraging eructation (belching). Further down the gut, the effect typically is antispasmodic.
Typical ingredients for such applications include eucalyptus oils, menthol, capsaicin, anise and camphor. Other essential oils work well in these applications, but it is notable that others offer no significant benefit. This illustrates the fact that different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Those that do work well for upper respiratory tract and bronchial problems act variously as mild expectorants and decongestants. Some act as locally anaesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive effect.
Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects.With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents, many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.
Many essential oils affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful. They are used in antiseptics and liniments in particular. Typically, they produce rubefacient irritation at first and then counterirritant numbness. Turpentine oil and camphor are two typical examples of oils that cause such effects. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. This is caused by its effect on heat-sensing nerve endings. Some essential oils, such as clove oil or eugenol, were popular for many hundred years in dentistry as antiseptics and local anaesthetics. Thymol is well known for its antiseptic effects.
Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Many common essential oils have medicinal properties that have been applied in folk medicine since ancient times and are still widely used today. For example, many essential oils have antiseptic properties.[14] Many are also claimed to have an uplifting effect on the mind. Such claims, if meaningful, are not necessarily false but are difficult to quantify in the light of the sheer variability of materials used in the practice.
Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: “oil-loving”) compounds that usually are not miscible with water. Also, they can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol, and polyethylene glycol.
Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.
Black alder (Álnus glutinósa) – deciduous tree growing to about 20 m tall with sticky branches. Bark is dark-brown. Leaves are simple, entire, alternate, to 7 cm long, round with hollow in top. Male and female flowers separate on same tree. Flowers are shallow. Male flowers are in drooping catkins, female in short catkins. Perianth is reduced. Fruit – browutlet.
Active ingredients: tannins.
Uses: multiply fruits as antiseptic, antibacterial and reduced bleeding.
Similar species: Grey alder-tree (Álnus incana) has eggs-shape leaves without hollow in top. Uses analogous as Black alder.
The Walnut Family (Juglandaceae)
Persian walnut (Juglans regia) – deciduous tree growing to about 25 m tall, with dark-grey bark. Leaves are alternate, long-stalked, to 40 cm long , compound with 5-9 elliptical leaflets. Male and female flowers separate on same tree. Male flowers are in drooping catkins to 15 cm long, female in short clusters. Fruit – oval green drupe. Widely planted in gardens.
Active ingredients: flavonoids, phenologlycocides.
Uses: pericarp and leaves as antibacterial, for treating intestinal and stomach inflammation, also skin problems.
Further uses: seed and fatty oil for eating.
Subclasses Dilleniidae
The Cabbage Family, Mustard Family (Brassicaceae)
The original Latiame for the Mustard Family was Cruciferae. The name describes the four petals of the flowers that are arranged in the form of a cross. The flowers also have four sepals, usually four nectar glands, and six stamens, two of which are shorter than the other four. All members produce siliques or silicles inflorescence raceme that are unique to the family. FLORAL FORMULA * Ca2+2 Co2+2 A2+4 G(2)
All 2,500 species of the family produce a pungent, watery juice, and nearly all are herbs distributed primarily throughout the temperate and cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Among the widely cultivated edible plants of the Mustard Family are cabbage, Chinese cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, broccoli, radish, kohlrabi. The widely used condiment mustard is a mixture. Some edible members are also wide-spread weeds (shepherd’s purse, peppergrass, and wild mustard).
White mustard (Sinápis alba) is annual grassy plant to 80 cm tall, hairy at base. Leaves are alternate, lobed, narrower towards top of plant. Flowers are yellow, actinomorphic, collected in raceme. There are 4 sepals and 4 petals. Fruit a silique to 4 cm long.
Active ingredients: fatty oil, glycosides.
Uses: seeds – to treat respiratory inflammation, for colds.
Further uses: as appetite stimulant in culinary.
Similar species: Black mustard (Sinápis nigra) uses analogous.
Shepherd’s-purse (Capsélla búrsa-pastóris) is annual grassy plant to 40 cm tall, with upright branching stems. Basal leaves are in a rosette, stalked, mostly pinnately lobed. Stem leaves encircling stem at base. Flowers are white, collected in raceme. Fruit a heart-shaped silicles.
Active ingredients: flavone-glycosides, vitamin K.
Uses: herb – to treat excess bleeding, as diuretic.
Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris)
Shepherd’s purse is a small, annual, evergreen plant with a rosette of slightly hairy leaves at its base. Arrow-shaped stem leaves have clusters of small white inconspicuous flowers at the top and triangular seed pods, which resemble old fashioned purses — hence the name.
It is a very common weed found in gardens, fields, waste ground and along roadsides. The whole plant, excluding the root, should be collected in the spring and summer and then bundled and dried in a shady place. The peppery young leaves can be used in spring salads or cooked with vegetables.
Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris)
Although originally a native of the Mediterranean , shepherd’s purse is distributed today throughout the world. The plant was used medicinally by the Greeks and Romans to cure hernias, pustules and wounds. It was also used to induce abortions, expel gall, and when applied in the form of an enema, for sciatica.
Shepherd’s purse contains vitamin K which promote the clotting of blood in addition to blood-stanching peptide. The fresh juice or an infusion of the plant is effective in treating heavy menstrual bleeding and a ball of cotton saturated with the juice inserted into the nostrils helps stop nose bleeds. The plant or its juice may be used as a compress on cuts and wounds.
However its blood stanching effectiveness is inconsistent because of the variable presence of the active principle. It has been suggested that menstrual disorders are not alleviated by shepherd’s purse, but by a fungus which parasitizes it.
Shepherd’s purse tea improves the circulation by regulating the working of weakened hearts, especially in the elderly, regardless of whether blood pressure is high or low.
The tea is prepared by pouring a cup of boiling water over 1 – 2 teaspoons of the dried herb. After 10 minutes the liquid is drained. One or two cupfuls are taken a day.
Shepherd’s purse has diuretic and stimulant properties and has been used in remedies for catarrh, liver and gall ailments, diarrhea, stomach ulcers, diabetes, hemorrhoids, bleeding of the uterus, hemorrhages and ulcers of the bladder and ureter.
The tea is a spring tonic and can be used as a gargle and mouth and throat disinfectant. When prepared with Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) the tea has been used as a remedy for colds, gout and rheumatism.
Its medicinal properties are immense — though a ‘weed’ it is very beneficial in so many ways.
It was believed that in order to be effective, the plants had to be picked with only one hand.
In Medieval Europe in order to stimulate teething in children the dried pods were sewn in a red linen patch and hung around the infant’s neck. After all the teeth had appeared the amulet was thrown into running water.
Treacle mustard (Erýsimum canéscens) is biennial grassy plant to 80 cm tall, with upright branching stems. Basal leaves in a rosette, stalked, lanceolate. Stem leaves encircling stem at base. Flowers are yellow, collected in raceme. Fruit a silique.
Active ingredients: Cardiac glycosides (very poisonous!).
Uses: herb – to strenghten heartbeat, as diuretic.
Cardiac glycosides are drugs used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. These glycosides are found as secondary metabolites in several plants, but also in some insects, such as the milkweed butterflies.
Example of the chemical structure ofoleandrin, one of the cardiac glycosides.
herapeutic uses of cardiac glycosides primarily involve the treatment of cardiac failure. Their utility results from an increased cardiac output by increasing the force of contraction. By increasing intracellular calcium as described below, cardiac glycosides increase calcium-induced calcium release and thus contraction.
Drugs such as ouabain and digoxin are cardiac glycosides. Digoxin from the foxglove plant is used clinically, whereas ouabain is used only experimentally due to its extremely high potency.
Normally, sodium-potassium pumps in the membrane of cells (in this case, cardiac myocytes) pump potassium ions in and sodium ions out. Cardiac glycosides inhibit this pump by stabilizing it in the E2-Ptransition state, so that sodium cannot be extruded: intracellular sodium concentration therefore increases. A second membrane ion exchanger, NCX, is responsible for ‘pumping’ calcium ions out of the cell and sodium ions in (3Na/Ca); raised intracellular sodium levels inhibit this pump, so calcium ions are not extruded and will also begin to build up inside the cell.
Increased cytoplasmic calcium concentrations cause increased calcium uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum via the SERCA2 transporter. Raised calcium stores in the SR allow for greater calcium release on stimulation, so the myocyte can achieve faster and more powerful contraction by cross-bridge cycling. The refractory period of the AV node is increased, so cardiac glycosides also function to regulate heart rate.
Binding of cardiac glycoside to Na-K ATPase is slow, and also, after binding, intracellular calcium increases gradually. Thus, the action of digitalis (even on IV injection) is delayed.
Raised extracellular potassium decreases binding of cardiac glycoside to Na-K ATPase. As a consequence, increased toxicity of these drugs is observed in the presence of Hypokalemia.
If SR calcium stores become too high, some ions are released spontaneously through SR ryanodine receptors. This effect leads initially to bigeminy: regular ectopic beats following each ventricular contraction. If higher glycoside doses are given, rhythm is lost and ventricular tachycardia ensues, followed by fibrillation.
Cabbage (Brássica olerácea) is biennial grassy plant with head of simple leaves. Flowers are white-yellow, collected in raceme. Fruit a silique.
Active ingredients: glycosides, vit. U. Uses: juice of leaves – to treat stomach ulcer.
Further uses: leaves for cook salad, soup.
The Heather Family (Ericaceae)
Nearly all the 3,500 members of the Heather Family are bushes and hemi-bushes. There are mycorrhizas (symbiosis with mushrooms) on roots. Leaves are simple, entire, without stipules.
This family consists of 125 genera and 3,500 species (Carr). It is the family of the cranberry, blueberry, heath, heather, huckleberry, azalea and rhododendron. Most of these plants grow in temperate regions. Most are also acid loving plants and grow well in acidic bogs.
Systematics: Identification of this family can be tough. Look for bell-shapped flowers that have 4 or 5 petals. But, remember that some can have petals in 6’s or 7’s. Very often the leaves are evergreen. Flowers are also bisexual.
Specimens List
Bilberry (Vaccínium myrtillus) is deciduous hairless, branching shrub to 50 cm tall, with green winged stem. Leaves are alternate, entire oval, pointed, with toothed margin. Flowers are single, actinomorphic, drooping, urn-shaped, pinkish-green. Fruit a dark blue rounded berry to 8 mm across. Active ingredients: tannins, vitamins.
Uses: shoots and fruits – to support treatment of diabetes, myopia, diarrhoea.
Further uses: berries – to make jam, pies.
Cowberry (Vaccinium ví́́tis–ideae) is evergreen dwarf shrub to 30 cm tall. Leaves are thick, alternate, entire, obovate, with downrolled, toothed margin. Leaves are dark green above, pale green below. Flowers are actinomorphic, bell-shaped, pinkish-white. Fruit a red rounded berry to 10 mm across.
Active ingredients: phenologlycosid arbutin, tannins.
Uses: shoots – to treat urinary and bladder infection.
Bearberry (Arctostáphylos úva-úrsi) is evergreen low shrub to 150 cm long. Leaves are thick, entire, obovate, with toothed margin and with hollow in top. Flowers are actinomorphic, bell-shaped, pinkish-white, collected in raceme. Fruit a red rounded berry to 8 mm across.
Active ingredients: phenologlycosid arbutin, tannins.
Uses: shoots – to treat urinary infection, as diuretic.
Wild rosemary (Lédum palústre) is evergreen shrub to 100 cm tall. Leaves are thick, entire, linnear, with downrolled margin and brown hairs below. Flowers are actinomorphic, white, collected in corymb. Fruit a long capsule.
Active ingredients: essential oils.
Uses: shoot (poisonous!) as hypotension and for treating cough.
PART 2
The St. John’s wort Family (Hypericaceae)
Perforate St. John’s wort (Hypéricum perforátum) is perennial grassy plant, growing to about 100 cm tall, with round, branching towards top stem. Leaves are opposite, entire, ovate, with translucent spots. Flowers are yellow, actinomorphic, to 2 cm across, in clusters. There are 5 sepals and 5 petals. Stamens are numerous. Fruit a small capsules.
Active ingredients: flavonoids, tannins, essential oils.
Uses: herb (flowering grass) – to treat depression, intestinal and stomach inflammation
The Violet Family (Violaceae)
Violaceae:
This family has 800 species and 16 genera.This family is well known in the world of ornamentals because of the pansy (Viola tricolor) and the violet (Viola spp). One interesting thing about violets is there ability to ‘self’. In late summer, if conditions get bad, the violets can produce buds that never open. This forces the stamen to be very close to the pistil. Thus, the flowers can “self” if it they have to.
Systematics: The Violaceae has flowers that are zygomorphic and sometimes cleistogomous (remain closed). There are 5 distinct sepals and 5 petals. There is often a spur on the lower most petal. The stamens are coherent around the gynoecium and one of the stamen usually goes into the spur for nectar. There is one locule, and 3 carpels on one syncarpus pistil. The ovary is superior. There is a flap on each anther that sticks forward. The androecium is often closely pressed to the pistil.
Wild Pansy (Víola trícolor) is annual or perennial grassy plant, growing to about 20 cm tall, with leafy stem. Leaves are alternate, simple, with pinnate stipules. Flowers are zygomorphic, to 3 cm across, very fragrant, yellow to blue, with dark stripes. Fruit a round capsules.
Active ingredients: flavonoids, tannins, saponins
Uses: herb to treat respiratory illness, dry coughs, skin complaints. Similar species: Field Pansy (Víola arvénsis) has pale yellow flowers. Uses analogous to Wild Pansy.
The Cucumber Family (Cucurbitaceae)
Pumpkin (Cucúrbita pépo) is annual grassy plant with trailing stems to 10 m long. Stem is prickly-hairy. Leaves are alternate, simple, with 5 lobes. Male and female flowers separate on same plant. Flowers are yellow, actinomorphic, to 10 cm across, bell-shaped. There are 5 sepals and 5 petals. Fruit a berry-similar.
Active ingredients: fatty oil, protein.
Uses: seeds – to expel intestinal worms.
Further uses: flesh of fruits eaten as vegetable, in jam, fatty oil in culinary.
The Primrose Family (Primulaceae)
Cowslip (Prímula véris) is perennial grassy plant, growing to about 30 cm tall, softly hairy. Leaves in basal rosette, wrinkled, ovate. Flowers are actinomorphic, deep yellow, collected in umbel on leafless stem. Fruit a oval capsules.
Active ingredients: saponins, flavonoids, vitamin C.
Uses: leaf and roots as expectorant, for treating coughs and bronchitis.
The Mallow Family (Malvaceae)
Marsh Mallow (Althaéa officinális) is perennial grassy plant, with upright stem growing to about 160 cm tall, softly hairy. Leaves are alternate, grey-green, covered in silky hairs. Lower leaves 3-5-lobed, upper leaves oval, toothed. Flowers are actinomorphic, pale pink, collected in the axil of upper leaves. Fruit a ring-shaped and hairy.
Active ingredients: mucilage.
Uses: leaf and roots as expectorant, for treating throat infection, gastric ulcer.
About Marshmallow Extract:
Marshmallow has been utilized for thousands of years not only as a food during times of famine, but for its healing properties as an herbal remedy. Primary chemical constituents of Marshmallow include mucilage, polysaccharides, flavonoids (quercetin, kaaempferol), asparagine, tannins, lecithin, and pectin.
Action:
a) Marsh mallow contains mucilage and has a wonderful softening effect on the skin
b) Recently, Marshmallow has been used as an expectorant to treat a variety of upper respiratory problems.
c) Marshmallow reduces inflammation and has a calming effect on the body.
d) Although Marshmallow has primarily been used for the respiratory and digestive tracts, its high mucilage content may also provide some minor relief for urinary tract and skin infections.
e) Marshmallow’s mucilage content helps soothe inflamed tissues, often caused by bronchitis. Marshmallow also relieves dryness and irritation in the chest and throat, usually brought on by colds and persistent coughs.
The Nettle Family (Urticaceae)
Common Nettle (Urtica dioica) is perennial grassy plant, with upright stem growing to about 120 cm tall, with stinging hairs. Leaves are opposite, entire, stalked, heart-shaped at the base, pointed and toothed. Plant is dioecious. Perianth is small and greenish. Flowers clustered in the leaf axils. Fruit – nutlet.
Active ingredients: vitamin K, iron.
Uses: leaf for lowers blood pressure, as diuretic, as iron-rich tea for anameia. Further uses: as a vegetable in soup, salad.
Stinging Nettles (Urtica dioica and Urtica urens)
The hairs on the leaves of the stringing nettle have globular, silicified tips that are fragile and quartz-like and break off when brushed. The resulting sharp point injects histamine, which causes allergic reactions and acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter ordinarily found ierves, which amplifies the sensation of pain.
However the nettle is rich in vitamins A and C, carotene, magnesium, phosphorous, potassium, calcium and other minerals.
The high mineral and vitamin content increases body metabolism. The nettle also has astringent, tonic and strong diuretic properties, and is presently utilized in treating urinary disorders caused by enlarged prostates and reduced heart and kidney activity.
Nettles stimulate the gastro intestines, pancreas and gall. Its multiple active constituents make it beneficial for a range of diseases.
Nettle teas have been home remedies for arthritis, gout, shortness of breath, phlegm-congested lungs, bronchitis, nervous eczema and hemorrhoids.
The pulverized root, cooked with sugar in sweet violet syrup is an excellent remedy for whooping cough and inflamed throats.
Decoctions of the plant help lower blood sugar levels and blood pressure and increase the number of red blood cells.
Rich in copper, iron and salicylic acid, which improve the condition of the blood, nettle is used to treat secondary anaemia, chlorosis, diabetes, uterine hemorrhages, and hives and to diminish menstrual and other bleeding.
The bruised leaves are applied as a poultice to alleviate burns, scabs, wounds, indurate spleens and neuralgia.
The leaves may be used as a gargle to sooth toothache and in foot baths for rheumatism, or they can be burned and inhaled to treat asthma. People have been beaten with fresh nettles as a treatment for rheumatism, paralysis, pleurisy, measles and scarlet fever.
The juice, applied with a stiff brush or massaged into the scalp, removes dandruff and invigorates the hair.
The leaves and tops are collected in late spring to early summer. The roots are at their best in June and July. The plants are best collected with scissors and gloves and boiling in water removes their sting.
Nettles finely chopped are beneficial in a salad and can also be cooked and added to stews. Once chopped or cooked the sting is taken out of the plant.
Cannabis (/) is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative varieties, Cannabis sativa,[1] Cannabis indica,[1] and Cannabis ruderalis. These three taxa are indigenous to Central Asia, and South Asia.[2] Cannabis has long been used for fibre (hemp), for seed and seed oils, for medicinal purposes, and as arecreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention, someCannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of THC, the principal psychoactive constituent responsible for the “high” associated with marijuana. Marijuana consists of the dried flowers of Cannabis plants selectively bred to produce high levels of THC and other psychoactive cannabinoids. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.
The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis) (see Latin cannabis), which was originally Scythian orThracian. It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly even to the English hemp (Old Englishhænep).[5] In modern Hebrew, קַנַּבּוֹס qannabōs modern pronunciation: [kanaˈbos] is used but מַעֲלֶה עָשָׁן maʿăleh ʿāšānmodern pronunciation: [ma.aˈle aˈʃan] (smoke bringer) is the ancient term. Old Akkadian qunnabtu, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian qunnabu were used to refer to the plant meaning “a way to produce smoke.
Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets.[9] The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.
he leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a Cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have confusingly similar leaves (see illustration). As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip. However,the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein (occasionally a pair of such spur veins) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabisleaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special expertise and equipment.[10]
Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with staminate “male” and pistillate “female” flowers occurring on separate plants.[11] It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers.[12] Although monoecious plants are often referred to as “hermaphrodites,” true hermaphrodites (which are less common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes.[13] “At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabisplant as dioecious,”[14] and the (ca. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi 枲 “male Cannabis” and fu 莩 (or ju 苴) “female Cannabis“.
mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabiscultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects when consumed.
Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.[20] As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil.[3] In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for sale or personal use.
Cannabis ruderalis
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names.[24] In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var.kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.[29][38] In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), andC. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativasubspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.[2This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.
In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canadaspecifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other’s integrity.[33][34] The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.[
In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small[42] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp.sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.[38] The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumablyselected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.
Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphologicaldifferences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis.[44][45][46][47] For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species.[48] According to Schultes’ and Anderson’s descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed “sativa” drugstrains from wide-leafed “indica” drug strains.[49]
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes.[50][51][52][53][54] Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an “extremely high” degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.[28] They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabisgene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.
Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg[55] at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, andchemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis.[29] The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis.[32] In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysisof phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.[56]Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.[57] Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.
In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International.
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. Sativa is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. Indica designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. Ruderalis is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.
Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as “pure indica,” “mostly indica,” “indica/sativa,” “mostly sativa”, or “pure sativa.”
Cannabis sativa fruits (achenes) that contain the seeds
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious,[16][60] although many monoecious varieties have been described.[61] Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.[62][63][64] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[52][65][66]
Cannabis flower with visible trichomes
Male Cannabis flower buds
As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[67] Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops.] However,sativa strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.
The Hemp Family (Cannabaceae)
Hop-plant (Humulus lupulus) is climbing herbaceous perennial to about 6 m long. Leaves stalked. opposite, mostly 3-7-lobed, with heart-saped base. Plant dioecios. Male flowers collect in a panicle. Perianth are greenish. Female flowers in pale green cone-like clusters, with oval glandular bract. Fruit a nut.
Active ingredients: bitters, essential oil.
Uses: Female clusters as mild sedative.
Further uses: ingredients of beer.
The Lime Family (Tiliaceae)
Lime tree (Small-leaved Lime) (Tília cordáta) – deciduous tree growing to about 40 m tall with dark-grey bark. Leaves are simple, alternate, to 8 cm long. Blade is heart-shaped, with toothed margin. Flowers are yellow-white, strongly scented, and hermaphrodite. Flowers are collected in clusters and have tongue-shaped bract. Perianth is 5-partite. Fruit – woodsy nut.
Active ingredients: mucilage, flavonoids, essential oil.
Uses: flowers for treating fevers and flu, also improves insomnia.
Further uses: lime water is a skin tonic. Lime blossom honey is much valued.
The Willow Family (Salicaceae)
Holly willow (Sálix acutifólia) is deciduous shrub growing to about 8 m tall, with dark-grey bark. Leaves are alternate, simple, entire, short-stalked, to 12 cm. Plant is dioecious. Perianth is reduced. Male and female flowers are little, collect in catkins to 5 cm long. Fruit – little capsule, ovary with white silky hairs.
Active ingredients: phenologlycosid salicin, tannins.
Uses: bark as antiseptic, for treating fevers and inflammation, rheumatism.
Salicylic acid (from Latin salix, willow tree, from the bark of which the substance used to be obtained) is a monohydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid and a beta hydroxy acid. This colorless crystalline organic acid is widely used in organic synthesis and functions as a plant hormone. It is derived from the metabolism of salicin. In addition to being an important active metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), which acts in part as a prodrug to salicylic acid, it is probably best known for its use in anti-acne treatments. The salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates.
Salicylic acid has the formula C6H4(OH)COOH, where the OH group is ortho to the carboxyl group. It is also known as 2-hydroxybenzoic acid. It is poorly soluble in water (2 g/L at 20 °C).[3] Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid or ASA) can be prepared by the esterification of the phenolic hydroxyl group of salicylic acid with the acetylgroup from acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride.
Salicylic acid (SA) is a phenolic phytohormone and is found in plants with roles in plant growth and development, photosynthesis, transpiration, ion uptake and transport. SA also induces specific changes in leaf anatomy and chloroplast structure. SA is involved in endogenous signaling, mediating in plant defense againstpathogens.[4] It plays a role in the resistance to pathogens by inducing the production of pathogenesis-related proteins.[5] It is involved in the systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in which a pathogenic attack on one part of the plant induces resistance in other parts. The signal can also move to nearby plants by salicylic acid being converted to the volatile ester, methyl salicylate.[6]
Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In Arabidopsis thaliana it can also be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.
Sodium salicylate is commercially prepared by treating sodium phenolate (the sodium salt of phenol) with carbon dioxide at high pressure (100 atm) and high temperature (390K) -a method known as the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. Acidification of the product with sulfuric acid gives salicylic acid:
It can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)[7] or methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen) with a strong acid or base.
White willow (Salix alba) is a natural source of salicylic acid
The Greek physician Hippocrates wrote in the 5th century BC about a bitter powder extracted from willow bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers.[citatioeeded] This remedy was also mentioned in texts from ancient Sumer, Lebanon, and Assyria.[citatioeeded] The Cherokee and other Native Americans used an infusion of the bark for fever and other medicinal purposes for centuries.[8] The medicinal part of the plant is the inner bark and was used as a pain reliever for a variety of ailments. The Reverend Edward Stone, a vicar from Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, noted in 1763 that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever.
The active extract of the bark, called salicin, after the Latin name for the white willow (Salix alba), was isolated and named by the German chemist Johann Andreas Buchner in 1826. A larger amount of the substance was isolated in 1828 by Henri Leroux, a French pharmacist. Raffaele Piria, an Italian chemist was able to convert the substance into a sugar and a second component, which on oxidation becomes salicylic acid.
Salicylic acid was also isolated from the herb meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria, formerly classified as Spiraea ulmaria) by German researchers in 1839. While their extract was somewhat effective, it also caused digestive problems such as gastric irritation, bleeding, diarrhea, and even death when consumed in high doses.
Unripe fruits and vegetables are natural sources of salicylic acid, particularly blackberries, blueberries, cantaloupes, dates, raisins, kiwi fruits, guavas, apricots,green pepper, olives, tomatoes, radish and chicory; also mushrooms. Some herbs and spices contain quite high amounts, while meat, poultry, fish, eggs and dairy products all have little to no salicylates. Of the legumes, seeds, nuts, and cereals, only almonds, water chestnuts and peanuts have significant amounts.
Salicylic acid is known for its ability to ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. These medicinal properties, particularly fever relief, have been known since ancient times, and it is used as an anti-inflammatory drug.
In modern medicine, salicylic acid and its derivatives are used as constituents of some rubefacient products. For example, methyl salicylate is used as a linimentto soothe joint and muscle pain, and choline salicylate is used topically to relieve the pain of mouth ulcers.
Cotton pads soaked in salicylic acid can be used to chemically exfoliate skin
As with other beta hydroxy acids, salicylic acid is a key ingredient in many skin-care products for the treatment of seborrhoeic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis,calluses, corns, keratosis pilaris, and warts.[The standard treatment for calluses is a 6% aspirin suspension in petroleum jelly, applied on the callus for one hour and then removed with washing. It works as a keratolytic, bacteriocide and comedolytic agent by causing the cells of the epidermis to shed more readily, opening clogged pores and neutralizing bacteria within, preventing pores from clogging up again by constricting pore diameter, and allowing room for new cell growth.[14] Because of its effect on skin cells, salicylic acid is used in several shampoos to treat dandruff. Use of concentrated solutions of salicylic acid may cause hyperpigmentation on unpretreated skin for those with darker skin types (Fitzpatrick phototypes IV, V, VI), as well as with the lack of use of a broad spectrum sunblock.
Bismuth subsalicylate, a salt of bismuth and salicylic acid, is the active ingredient in stomach relief aids such as Pepto-Bismol.
Salicylic acid has been shown to work through several different pathways. It produces its anti-inflammatory effects via suppressing the activity of cyclooxygenase(COX), an enzyme that is responsible for the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as the prostaglandins. It does this not by direct inhibition of COX like most other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) but instead by suppression of the expression of the enzyme (via a yet-unelucidated mechanism).[17]Salicylic acid has also been shown to activate adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and it is thought that this action may play a role in theanticancer effects of the compound and its prodrugs aspirin and salsalate. In addition, the antidiabetic effects of salicylic acid are likely mediated by AMPK activation primarily through allosteric conformational change that increases levels of phosphorylation.[18] Salicylic acid also uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, which leads to increased ADP:ATP and AMP:ATP ratios in the cell. As a consequence, salicylic acid may alter AMPK activity and subsequently exert its anti-diabetic properties through altered energy status of the cell. Even in AMPK knock-out mice, however, there is an anti-diabetic effect, demonstrating that there is at least one additional, yet-unidentified action of the compound.
Although toxic in large quantities, salicylic acid is used as a food preservative and as bactericidal and an antiseptic.[20] For some people with salicylate sensitivity, even these small doses can be harmful.
Sodium salicylate is a useful phosphor in the vacuum ultraviolet, with nearly flat quantum efficiency for wavelengths between 10 to 100 nm.[21] It fluoresces in the blue at 420 nm. It is easily prepared on a clean surface by spraying a saturated solution of the salt in methanol followed by evaporation.
Black poplar (Pópulus nígra) is deciduous tree growing to about 40 mMedicinal plants are more than simply objects with useful chemical and symbolic aspects. They are living organisms that are functionally embedded in the cultural fabric of social groups and institutions. They play an integral role in ideas of balance and cosmological order that often reflect sophisticated medical theories of the human body, the symptoms it experiences and their underlying causes.
Many different elements are involved in the complex of ideas and practice that comprises medicinal plant use. The exact constituents of a medicinal plant-related tradition vary from culture to culture to form a rich and diverse array of medical systems.
How Plants Cure
The prevailing scientific view is that all disease is caused on a molecular level. Similarly, a chemical drug produces its effect by entering a cell through a receptor (a chemical structure on the surface of the cell) that conforms to the shape of the drug molecule, like a lock and key.
In contrast though, medicinal plants, in many incidences and within various cultures, are described by their adherents as working on a higher physiological level. Astringents make muscle solids firm; diaphoretics promote perspiration by the skin, which makes them more versatile. A plant that increases the secretion of urine can also be used to treat kidney and bladder ailments or to eliminate body poisons. For example, tannins are compounds that bind with proteins in the skin and mucous membranes and convert them into insoluble, resistant tissues. So plants that are high in tannins may be used for a number of ailments such as; diarrhea, wounds, inflamed gums and hemorrhoids.
Medicinal plants commonly have several constituents working together catalytically to produce a combined effect which surpasses their individual activity. Modes of preparation and ingestion are also very important.
The Cacao Family (Sterculiaceae)
Cacao-tree (Theobroma cacao) is evergreen tree growing to about 15 m tall. Leaves are alternate, simple, without stipules, entire, round. Flowers are actinomorphic, pale pink, collected in clusters. Fruit a berry to about 25 cm long with 50-60 seeds.
Active ingredients: fatty oil, alkaloids (caffeine, thebromine, etc.)
Uses: seeds and fatty oil as tonics, ,diuretic.
Everyone knows the goodness of chocolate whether it’s dark, milk or even white. Some people know all about the tree where the cocoa bean comes from – Theobroma cacao, also know as the Cacao Tree, the Cocoa Tree or the Chocolate Tree. I don’t think many people know how magnificent this tree really is in all its splendor. The flowers vary in size and color depending on the variety and region of the tree, just like the cocoa pods. The flowers are absolutely exquisite. They resemble orchids.
Out of all of the flowers on the tree, only 3 out of 1000 flowers actually get pollinated to become the cocoa pod fruit. It takes about 5-8 months for the flower to blossom into the fruit and become a pod. Both the fruit and the flowers are on the tree all year long which is an oddity in the world of fruit producing trees. When you see theTheobroma cacao, you will be surprised that the flowers grow on the main stem, or trunk, of the tree. That’s the only place you’ll find them. Oftentimes they will be waves of flowers covering the entire trunk. It is a sight that will quite literally take your breath away!
Theobroma Cacao Flowers
Another oddity? Out of all of the flowers on Theobroma cacao, the white flowers never smell. Alan Young, who is a biologist, says that Theobroma cacao have over 400 distinct smells. For comparison purposes, the rose has 14 and an onion has 7. How complex and intricate is that? There are more flowers on the tree at the beginning of the season rather than at the end of the season. Pollination occurs in the morning hours and if it doesn’t happen within 24 hours, the flowers dies. That’s why you never see these gorgeous blossoms at the florist.
Theobroma Cacao Pulp and Beans
Once pollinated, the flowers slowly grow into magnificent pods. They also stay right there were the flower was, right on the trunk. While a pod is growing, it will be green in color. When it is a large ripe pod, however, it will become jewel tones of citrine (yellow), amber (orange), ruby (red) or amethyst (purple), and some stay various shades of green turqouise, emerald and patinaed copper (green). The pods vary in size, shape and texture depending upon the variety of Theobroma cacao. The size is usually about 10-40 cm when fully mature. Once a pod is ripe, it may be left on the tree for up to three weeks without spoiling. If the pod is too ripe, it won’t open. A sign from nature that its life is over. The sticky pulp inside the cocoa pod is edible. It’s doesn’t taste like cocoa or chocolate though. Some say it tastes like mango. It has the density and texture of an apple. The bean is where the cocoa comes from.
Cocoa Pods on the Trunk
Ripe Cocoa Pods
So even though we really only know and appreciateTheobroma cacao for the chocolate and cocoa it provides for us, it’s nice to take the time to appreciate the full tree that really stands out from nature itself in all ways. It provides fruit all year feeding both man and animal, it flowers and bears fruit all year, it’s extremely beautiful with its colorful pods and flowers, and it is different in that the flowers and pods will only grow on the trunk. This is one amazing tree. No wonder so many ancients worshipped the tree and its products and no wonder we are finding that the products from Theobroma cacao are super foods!
Harvested Ripe Cocoa Pods
In recent years there has been a tremendous surge of interest in herbal or botanic medicine. In consequence, a wide variety of ready-prepared natural remedies have found their way onto the shelves of herb suppliers, health-food stores, and even some chemists. While manufacturers are to be commended for presenting the public with an alternative to chemicals, it’s important to remember that a lot of remedies can be made at home. While naturally treating what ails you may seem like hocus pocus, many wonderful cures are as common as what’s found in your herb garden.
No matter where you live, you will always be able to find plants that can be cultivated for their medicinal values. Of course, exactly what plants are available to you depends largely on your own geographical location. Where I live, one can find an almost endless variety of useful herbs, “weeds” (I detest that word), and shrubs. Even in quite heavily populated towns it is normally possible to find an inexhaustible supply of dandelion, groundsel, chickweed, coltsfoot, dock, plaintain, and bindweed.
When collecting plants—especially those to be used for medicinal purposes—there are several golden rules to follow. Stick to them, and you can be sure that the plants you pick will be of the finest quality.
Some herbs are almost indistinguishable from others that have totally different properties. Rosebay Willow-herb (Chamaenerion angustifolium) may, to the untrained eye, look suspiciously like Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), and two members of the Figwort family Scrophulariaceae—Yellow Lute (Odontites lutea) and Common Cow-wheat (Melampyrum pratense)—may also be easily confused by someone who is gingerly taking his or her first herb-hunting expedition in the fields.
Always take several illustrated pocket books with you when you are looking for herbs that you are not overly familiar with.
Some plants such as the Raspberry, Blackberry, Lesser Plaintain, Ground Ivy, and Self-Heal have a curious affinity for the lead thrown out by car-exhaust fumes. Plants picked by a busy roadside may contain up to 200 times their natural level of lead.
It is not by coincidence that you find a field covered with a golden carpet of Coltsfoot or a meadow dotted profusely with clumps of Plantain. If an herb is growing prolifically in a particular area, you can be sure that the soil is rich in the minerals and organic acids or alkalines that promote vigorous and healthy growth. Try to pick your herbs from areas such as these.
Pick by mid-morning, when most of the dew has evaporated from the foliage (dew-laden herbs tend to develop mold soon after picking).
Once you have found the desired herb growing in a suitable area, it is most important that you select only the best specimens, and also that you defoliate the plant in the correct manner. Avoid plants that show any signs of damage or disease. Black spots on the leaves, discoloration of the stem, or droopy foliage are some of the tell-tale signs that all is not well.
Unless you require the root of the plant, it is rarely necessary to destroy the whole herb. The Chinese have an old custom of only picking the “dragon’s ears” or top two leaves. Polish herbalists will always “leave some for God”—they’ll leave the rootstock to flourish again. Both ideas are to be encouraged because they promote vigorous growth and ensure that the species population does not become depleted.
When removing the foliage, choose only tender young leaves that have a healthy appearance. Old leaves tend to be tough and battle-scarred due to exposure to harsh winters. Leaves from biennial plants should, when possible, be picked in their second years.
Flowerheads are particularly prone to damage, especially from marauding insects. The best time to pick flowerheads is in the early morning, but be sure to dry them at the first opportunity to prevent molding. Avoid blooms that are starting to lose their petals, as they are past their best.
Removing bark is perhaps the most delicate operation, because if it is removed in the wrong manner, the entire plant may die. Select the tree or shrub that you require, then, with a sharp blade or small hacksaw, carefully remove smaller branches from the top and outer areas of the plant. Bark is much more easily stripped from new stemmage and branches.
Do not attempt to remove bark from branches which are still attached to the tree—you may accidentally “run” the strip of bark down the trunk, and leave it open to infection from parasites, fungi, or disease.
Once you have removed the parts of the plant that you require—the leaves, stem, root, bark, seeds, or flowerhead—store them in small cotton or muslin bags for transportation. Never mix two or more herbs in the same bag. You’d be amazed how two herbs that looked entirely different in the field can look confusingly similar on the kitchen bench!
Be careful not to crush or damage the leaves during transportation (a wire frame placed inside the collecting bag helps).
Having collected your herbs, it is important that you prepare them for storage as soon as possible. Every home herbalist has his or her own techniques and favorite methods of storing herbs, and some of them are quite simple. The most popular means of preserving herbs is by drying. In removing the moisture from the cellular structure of the plant, you trap the “active principles,” or therapeutically useful chemicals, inside. Also, the plant is impervious to mold, disease, and other problems. Dried herbs can—depending on the species—be stored for up to five years with no loss of potency.
Literature
1. Botany / Randy Moore, W.Denis Clark, Kingsley R.Stern, Darrell Vodopich. – Dubuque, IA, Bogota, Boston, Buenos Aires, Caracas, Chicago, Guilford, CT, London, Madrid, Mexico City, Sydney, Toronto: Wm.C.Brown Publishers.- 1994. -P.378-462.
2. Gulko R.M. Explanatory Dictionary of Medicinal Botany. – Lviv: LSMU, 2003.-200 p.
3. Kindsley R. Stern. Introductory plant biology. – Dubuque, Ajowa, Melburne and Australia, Oxford, England: Wm.C.Brown Publishers, 1994.
4. Ткаченко H.M., Cep6iн A..Г. Ботаніка.- Xapків: Ocновa, 1997.
5. Рейвн П., Эверт Р., Айкхорн С. Современная ботаника: В 2-х т. – М., 1990. http://www.google.wikipedia.
http://www.sciencedirect.com
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![Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990 and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[6]](http://www.wellandgoodnyc.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/EssentialOils.jpg){kind=link}
![he leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a Cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have confusingly similar leaves (see illustration). As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip. However,the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein (occasionally a pair of such spur veins) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabisleaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special expertise and equipment.[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cannabis_sativa_leaf_diagnostic_venation_2012_01_23_0829_c.jpg){kind=link}
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