№ 04 Critical Thinking, reading and writing.

 

 

Contents

1.      What is Critical Thinking

2.      Definition of Critical Thinking

3.      Characteristic of people with critical thinking

4.      Core critical thinking Skills

5.      Components of Critical Thinking

6.      The Critical Thinking Process

7.      Summary

 

In a Nutshell
Critical Thinking is clear thinking that aligns our thinking with reality . It means being truly honest and clear headed as well as self aware of wrong assumptions and paradigms.

1. What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is not negative thinking or, looking to see faults in a person. It is actually thinking as clearly as we can, avoiding faulty thinking that is based on opinions or biases. Thinking clearly is a characteristic of wisdom and is expected that a person thinks critically as well as creatively. A lot of the world’s problems in the present times are caused by faulty thinking .

The following are a few of the numerous definitions of critical thinking as expressed by different authors.

2 Definitions of Critical Thinking on the Web:

         is a term used to refer to those kinds of mental activity that are clear, precise, and purposeful. It is typically associated with solving complex real world problems, generating multiple (or creative) solutions to a problem, drawing inferences, synthesizing and integrating information, distinguishing between fact and opinion, or estimating potential outcomes, but it can also refer to the process of evaluating the quality of one’s own thinking.

         A persistent effort to examine evidence that supports any belief, solution, or conclusion prior to its acceptance. The ability to think clearly, to analyse, and to reason logically.

         Shows or requires careful analysis before judgement.

 

 

 

 

4 .Core Critical Thinking Skills
         Analysis-The examination and evaluation of the relevant information to select the best course of action from among various alternatives.
         Explanation -a statement that makes something comprehensible by describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc.
         Interpretation -a mental representation of the meaning or significance of something
         Evaluation-The process of determining whether an item or activity meets specified criteria
         Inference-the reasoning involved in drawing a conclusion or making a logical judgment on the basis of circumstantial evidence and prior conclusions rather than on the basis of direct observation
         Self regulation is self control. Self control is the exertion of one’s own will on their personal self – their behaviors, actions, thought processes.

 

5. The components of Critical Thinking

 I am in agreement with the view that there are five major attributes of critical thinkers.

They are:

1.      intellectual humility,

2.      an attitude of scepticism and questioning,

3.      awareness of bias,

4.      intellectual courage

5.      metacognition

 5.1 Intellectual Humility

 

Intellectual humility is the ability to admit to oneself that the knowledge one possesses on almost all topics is incomplete and possibly incorrect, at least in part. Critical thinkers assume that they are ignorant about many things. They understand that their knowledge and wisdom is limited by the time they live in, the people they have met, their own intelligence and many other factors. Excessive pride in one’s knowledge is often the mother of ignorance. And people who think that they know answers usually don’t look for alternative explanations.

Wisdom (or critical thinking) begins with appreciating how little we know. Wise people realise the more they know, the more they know that there is a lot they do not know.

 

5 .2 Scepticism/Questioning

Scepticism is an intellectual trait that often comes with age and training, but it is an ability that can be improved at any age. It is the mental state that does not accept information received by most sources as being completely true or accurate. None of us can be correct about all that we believe in all of the time. There will be things that we perceive to be true that turns out to be untrue . A good example will be in the field of medicine where changes are being made at rapid speeds over practices that were thought to be correct but turns out not to be the best.

In the past, doctors used to tell patients to avoid butter since it contained cholesterol but now it is found that the trans fatty acids in margerines are even more harmful than the cholesterol in butter!

When we were young we were told many things by our parents and we believed them to be true , but when we grow older, we find it to be false. Some of you may remember mothers telling you not to eat chicken wings because you will fly far away from home and many such taboos which actually turn out to be untrue,

Religious beliefs may also fall into this category because sometimes, false things get into the picture and we accept it because it was what our parents perceived and when we increase in knowledge we find out that their perceptions were not right. Still being sceptical, we do not accept what is told to us , even if someone tells us we are wrong, we would need to test what they say and not accept it by virtue of their position , even if they had some authority.

Information is newspapers and over the news could also be wrong . Doctors could be misinformed, teachers could make mistakes . So we should not assume that information received is correct all the time .

Questioning is the logical partner of scepticism. Critical thinkers do not accept explanations that are given to them just because it was accepted by others before this

 “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again while expecting a different outcome.”Albert Einstein

5 .3 Bias

The third quality that a critical thinker must possess is the awareness that everyone is biased and prejudiced in some form. It should be understood here that the words “bias” and “prejudice” are used in the academic sense, meaning preferences, inclinations, or predispositions. Not all biases or prejudices are negative. As an example, if a person has a good and loving family and a beautiful relationship with his mother, he will view all women like he views his mother because his experience with his mother has coloured his perception of women. All of us have perceptions based on our experiences. Every experience changes how we see things.

There are many types of biases. Four important ones are self-interest, cultural bias, national bias, and personal bias. There are actually a lot more than this including political bias, group bias and many more but in these four that are explained below is enough for us to extrapolate into other biases that we have to become aware of. Note that knowing one’s own biases helps one to view things more objectively .

  

5.3 a Self Interest

it is natural that people favour whatever is in their perceived self-interest. University students will see a rise in text book prices as negative, while book sellers will see it as positive. Businesspersons may see any disaster as a chance to sell goods or to reconstruct buildings. Women usually favour tough laws against sexual harassment, while business owners will view it with less enthusiasm. Old politicians will think sexist jokes are fun while women MPs will fail to see the humour and regard it as harassment . Critical thinkers need to aware of the natural bias that we humans have to favour ideas and beliefs that are in our own self-interest.

This is particularly true in how we explain our behaviour. We have a natural tendency to rationalize, that is, to explain what we do in the best possible light. As a doctor when my patient does not get well I may tend to blame them for not taking their medication. Parents get angry when their children create a mess when they play but for the child it is the only way to play .

Self interest is what influences people to act unfairly or to ignore what is right as what happened when the Prophet SAW asked people to stop worshipping stones and worship God instead. The business people saw this as a loss for their business since a lot of the business centered around idol worship .

 

5. 3 b Cultural Bias

All of us have been biased by the general culture that we live in. A culture is a group of deep-seated beliefs, values, and customs that have been transmitted by past generations. It is a way of thinking, of valuing. Different cultures teach distinct ways that men, women, children, mothers, fathers, and others should be treated. Cultures teach divergent values relative to sexual relations, drug use, abortion, homosexuality, honesty, and many other subjects. As an example, in Malay culture , women do the housework while men work. Even though the economic situation has now made men and women both work, women are still expected to do housework while men are not .This is a cultural bias that is against the norms of the Prophet’s teachings.

We have been taught to see things in certain ways by our culture. Culture is a subtle form of brainwashing, of indoctrination. It is impossible to completely undo its effects completely. Often we are not aware of the powerful effects that our culture has on us until we are exposed to other cultures or ways of thinking. Those people who have seen other people in other cultures will realise the effect of culture on thinking while those who have never been exposed may think their way of thinking is the only perspective .

Language is part of a culture. It is not only a vehicle for communication; each language has a view of the world inherent in it. For this reason people who think in their native language may think differently than say for example someone who thinks in English or in Arabic. This could cause a misunderstanding via the differing perspectives.

All of us have subcultures, we come from certain ethnic groups as well as subgroups like the village we we born in or grew up in that share common values and ways of doing things.

Being in an organization also indoctrinates members into certain thought patterns and perspectives.

Cultures create bias. They create preferences, prejudices, ways of thinking and believing. Critical thinkers understand that their cultures have taught them beliefs and values that may make a lot of sense, little sense or nonsense.

 

5 .3 c Personal Bias

We are also products of a personal culture–a way of thinking that was given to us by our parents and those who raised us. Each family has its own special customs and values. Even so each family member is exposed to different experiences and this make each member have a difference as well.

5 .3 d National Bias

All of us are members of a particular country or nation-state. Usually we identify with this country, its government, and the people in it. We want to believe good things about our country and our people. They are usually considered an extension of ourselves. Countries, organizations, or individuals who seem to be opposed to our country are usually easily disliked and certainly mistrusted.

5 .3 e Concluding about Bias

There is no such thing as an “objective” person. We are all subjective. No human has an objective opinion of any social issue. We come into every situation with beliefs, values, and customs that affect our view. Critical thinkers are aware of these biases. In attempting to form opinions on different issues, our biases and the biases of others must be taken into account. Discovering one’s biases and trying to compensate for them is a life-long process.

5 .4 Intellectual Courage

This attribute of a critical thinker is the ability to think and voice thoughts that are unpopular. It is the capability to challenge beliefs that one holds dearly or that one’s group or country accepts—often without question. It is the courage to question commonly accepted convictions or dogma in the face of ridicule or at the cost of great personal anguish. This is the Path of all the Prophets and the Reformers of Nations.

It is often said that it takes courage to act on one’s true beliefs. While there is truth in this, it takes often takes more courage to doubt the beliefs taught by one’s parents, family, friends, and country. It is usually more difficult to choose beliefs and values than it is to act on them. Although we normally think that we chose the values and beliefs we hold dear, in truth they have usually been given to us by our family, friends, or culture. The real courage comes when we do not just accept values we have inherited but seek to find for ourselves the values we should not only have but act on. We have to realise how conditioned we are to simply accept group norms and group values , or family norms and values and the real test is whether we could change these to align with a bigger truth and bear the opposition and tribulation that comes from our challenging accepted norms

Critical thinkers cannot ignore unpopular, uncomfortable questions. They question the actions and beliefs of their parents, their country, their friends, their teachers and themselves. They have the courage to voice their opinions even when they know they may be publicly criticized.

5.5 Metacognition

 

Metacognition involves all the traits and skills of critical thinking. Perhaps the best short definition of it is “thinking about thinking.” Another definition would be the conscious and deliberate monitoring and regulating of one’s thinking. It is about being conscious of the way we think, how we reach our conclusions , what are the steps we go through and how we interpret information, are there any biases involved, is there faulty reasoning. In short, we wish to inform and improve our thinking by being conscious of the thinking procedures that we employ. This is metacognition.

For example, you have an negative opinion about people who own big cars. You feel they are all show offs. Metacognition involves analysing why you have this opinion . Metacognition is observing ourselves from outside of ourself , examining our biases and our experiences, studying the paradigms we have built up over the years and use to view situations and things with. It is being aware of the filters with with we view Life.

 

“To doubt everything or to believe everything are two equally convenient solutions; both dispense with the necessity of reflection.” –Jules Henri Poincaré

   

  

 

 

 

 

6.1 Identifying the Major Point

The first step in using critical thinking to evaluate an argument is clearly articulating the major point of the argument or belief. Sometimes the major point is clear, other times not, but it must be identified before one can start the process. Usually it can be stated in a few words. Here are a few examples:

1.      Women are bad drivers ,

2.      It is dangerous to go out at night

3.      Road cones are a major cause of accidents on the Highway

 

6.2. Summarize the logic behind the major points

The second step involves summarizing the major arguments or evidence presented in support of the major point. The supporting arguments must be stated as clearly as possible. They are the essence of the argument or the belief.

In the examples given above , the logic may be stated thus

1.      I think women are bad drivers because when I am driving behind a bad driver , I notice she is usually a woman

2.      Many cases of robbery and rape happen when the victims go out at night

3.      There have been more accidents on the highway since there were a lot of road cones used and each accident had been because of trying to avoid hitting cones that were place in the path of the cars.

 

6.3. Identifying the Major Assumptions

The third step is perhaps the most important. It is discovering the assumptions that have been made in the argument or position that is being analyzed. This is at the core of critical thinking. What does the speaker or writer assume? Most beliefs or arguments have a few basic assumptions that underlie them. Many of these assumptions are neither clearly stated nor easily understood. Identifying these assumptions is of utmost importance.

1.      The assumption is that my experience is common to all drivers

2.      The assumption is that the newspaper reports and statistics I have used to come to the conclusion is right

3.      The assumption is that it is only the cones that are a problem and not the drivers or the other aspects of the roadworks taking place.

 

6.4. Analyzing the Assumptions and Reasoning

The final step in the critical thinking process involves analyzing the assumptions and making a judgement on the reasoning of the author. It should be understood at the outset that most stated assumptions are rarely completely correct or incorrect.. Finding ignored factors takes imagination, but imagination is aided by information. As you research, you will see things that you did not think of before which will then lead you to other ideas.

The key here is research. Research just means verifying information by looking for other sources of information to ascertain the assumptions .

 

6.5. Asking the Major questions .

There are a few common mistakes in assumptions and reasoning and questions need to be asked

 

1.      The people using the same word mean the same thing so the question to ask : What do you mean when you use this word? What do they mean when they say this word?

2.      Overgeneralization , like in the example over women drivers. Question : Are all women bad drivers?

3.      Oversimplification That the problem is straightforwards and blame can be assigned to one person or one factor. The truth is that most issues are multifactorial . Question: It that the only possible reason , does this mean when we correct this one area the problem is solved?

4.      Wrong correlation , like relating bad driving to being a woman rather than to other factors, like bad training, carelessness, recklessness etc. Question , does it mean that being a woman means being a bad driver?

5.      Assuming that official sources of the news are always right and that figures and facts are accurate while it is often that these sources may be wrong. Critical thinking involves checking the source of statistics or numbers. Question, How reliable is this source, How can we verify the source

6.      Assuming the reasons given by a particular person in explanation of his actions are true and correct. Question , is he telling the truth , Is there any hidden agenda?

 

8 Summary of Module 9

1.      Critical Thinking is accurate thinking that focuses on that which is true

2.      There are many factors which make our thinking clouded and among these are Biases ,

3.      The 5 components of Critical Thinking are:

         Intellectual Humility , knowing that we do not know many things

         Awareness of Biases, especially our own

         An attitude of scepticism and questioning

         Intellectual courage

         Metacognition Thinking about thinking

4.      The Critical Thinking Process consists of

         Identifying the Major Points

         Identifying the assumptions behind these points

         Summarising the logic behind the assumptions

         Analysing the assumptions and the reasoning

         Asking Major questions to test the validity of the assumptions and reasoning

 

 

 

What is the Clear Thinking state of mind?  Once Clear Thinking skills are improved and mastered it is then important to exercise those skills in the best possible state of mind for optimum Clear Thinking.  The optimum state of mind for Clear Thinking is similar to the Ideal Performance State under which athletes are able to achieve at peak performance.  The Ideal Performance State is:

• Personally challenged

• Energized with positive emotions

• Ready for fun and enjoyment

• Focused and alert

• On automatic instinct

• Relaxed and calm

• Maintaining confidence

 

 

Critical thinking can be taught during:

1. Lectures You may of course directly teach critical thinking principles to your students during lecture, but this is neither required nor advisable. Stay with your subject matter, but present this is such a way that students will be encouraged to think critically about it. This is accomplished during lecture by questioning the students in ways that require that they not only understand the material, but can analyze it and apply it to new situations.

2. Laboratories Students inevitably practice critical thinking during laboratories in science class, because they are learning the scientific method.

3. Homework Both traditional reading homework and special written problem sets or questions can be used to enhance critical thinking. Homework presents many opportunities to encourage critical thinking.

4. Quantitative Exercises Mathematical exercises and quantitative word problems teach problem solving skills that can be used in everyday life. This obviously enhances critical thinking.

5. Term Papers The best way to teach critical thinking is to require that students write. Writing forces students to organize their thoughts, contemplate their topic, evaluate their data in a logical fashion, and present their conclusions in a persuasive manner. Good writing is the epitome of good critical thinking.

6. Exams Exam questions can be devised which promote critical thinking rather than rote memorization. This is true for both essay question exams and multiple-choice exams.

Your mission, if you decide to accept it, is to use one or more of the following classroom strategies or techniques to teach critical thinking in one or more of the above four course areas. You are encouraged to explore the possibilites and use as many as you wish. If you are already using some of these techniques, and many of you are, then you don’t have to change a thing.

Critical Thinking Teaching Strategies and Classroom Techniques

Critical thinking cannot be taught by lecturing. Critical thinking is an active process, while, for most students, listening to lectures is a passive activity. The intellectual skills of critical thinking–analysis, synthesis, reflection, etc.–must be learned by actually performing them. Classroom instruction, homework, term papers, and exams, therefore, should emphasize active intellectual participation by the student.

Lectures: Enhancement of critical thinking can be accomplished during lecture by periodically stopping and asking students searching and thoughtful questions about the material you have just presented, and then wait an appropriate time for them to respond. Do not immediately answer such questions yourself; leave sufficient time for students to think about their answer before they state it. If you constantly answer such questions yourself, students will quickly realize this and not respond. Learn students’ names as quickly as possible and ask the questions of specific students that you call upon by name. If an individual cannot answer a question, help them by simplifying the question and leading them through the thought process: ask what data are needed to answer the question, suggest how the data can be used to answer the question, and then have the student use this data in an appropriate way to come up with an answer.

You may, of course, ask simple questions that merely ask students to regurgitate factual information that you have just given them in lecture. Many students have trouble with these factual questions because they are not paying attention in class, they simply have never learned how to listen to a lecture and take mental and writteotes, or they don’t know how to review their notes and the textbook in preparation for an exam. Perhaps the most basic type of critical thinking is knowing how to listen to a lecture actively rather than passively; many students don’t know how to do this because they were never taught it and they were able to get through the educational system to their present situation–your class–without having to practice it. (A good book to read or suggest to students that they read is How to Speak, How to Listen by Mortimer J. Adler.) It is probably wise to begin asking the factual type of question so that students will realize that they have to pay attention. However, the goal of critical thinking requires that you eventually ask questions that require students to think through a cause and effect or premise and conclusion type of argument. This obliges them to reason from data or information they now possess through the lecture to reach new conclusions or understanding about the topic. For example, in chemistry, after presenting information about chemical reactions, you could ask students to describe chemical reactions that occur to them or near them everyday by the combination of commonplace chemical materials. Ask them to explain what type of reaction it is (oxidation, reduction, etc.) using whatever knowledge they possess of the reactant materials and their new knowledge of chemical reactions.

Dr. Dennis Huston of Rice University, winner of numerous teaching awards, recommends asking such questions in class. He complains that we teach students to be mere receivers of information from the instructor, rather than getting them to talk about and trust their own thoughts about the subject matter. Huston states that thoughtful and searching questions often have uncertain and ambiguous answers; this is more true in his area of study (literature) than in math and science, but the concept is the same. Rather than condition students to value only what the instructor says, get them to think deeply about the topic and value what they think and feel. Teach so that students think their ideas matter. Ask them to make connections and recognize patterns. They will experience a responsibility for their own education and think about what they learn and read. Students will be involved with their own learning, will feel deeply about it, and learn to value and trust their own thoughts and ideas. These recommendations are a perfect application of promoting critical thinking.

After lecture but before the class ends, ask students to write one-minute papers on the most significant thing they learned in class today and what single thing they still feel confused about. Dr. Huston says this is the single most important exercise you can do. You get immediate feedback about what the students are learning and what they still need to understand (technically, this is an application of what is called “classroom research” or “classroom assessment,” the deliberate discovery of what and how much students are learning and of how you are teaching). He says it also improves their writing. In our present case, of course, this exercise improves critical thinking.

In class, encourage questions from students. Always respond postively to questions; never brush them off or belitte the questioner. Instead, praise the questioner (for example, say “Good question!” or “I bet a lot of you want to know that”). Questions from students mean they are thinking critically about what you are saying; encourage that thinking!

During lecture, bring in historical and philosophical information about math and science that enables students to understand that all scientific and mathematical knowledge was gained by someone practicing critical thinking in the past, sometimes by acts of great courage or tedious painstaking work in the face of seemingly insurmountable difficulties.

Laboratories: Many science courses have laboratories connected with them. Science laboratory exercises are all excellent for teaching critical thinking. The reasons should be obvious. Here, the student learns the scientific method by acually practicing it. This method of teaching critical thinking is so clear and obvious that it seems odd that critical thinking is not promoted more in primary and secondary education by simply beginning science instruction in the first grade and requiring that students take more science courses. You will have to decide for yourself why this isn’t the case. Since laboratories automatically teach critical thinking to some degree, we will spend no more time on this topic.

Homework: Innumerable opportunities exist to promote critical thinking by homework assignments. For reading homework, Dr. William T. Daly recommends that you provide students the general questions you want answered before they begin reading, and insist that they organize their notes around these questions. Require that students transform the information and make it their own by requiring them to paraphrase, summarize, or outline all reading assignments. He suggests that you can grade their written efforts with oral quizes that can be structured to require abstract conceptualization and graded as students speak, for most students will prepare carefully in order to avoid failing repeatedly in public. You may also, of course, collect, grade, and return their written efforts.

As stated above, getting students to write more is the best, and perhaps the easiest, way to enhance critical thinking (this is also the answer to the question, “How did students learn critical thinking before there were formal critical thinking exercises and modules?”). Writing forces students to organize their thoughts and think critically about the material. Ask students to write short papers about pertinent topics, review science articles, even paraphrase news articles and textbook chapters. These exercises can be as elaborate as you wish to make them. For example, Drs. Robin W. Tyser and William J. Cerbin (1991, Bioscience, v. 41, no. 1, p. 41-46, “Critical thinking exercises for introductory biology courses”) propose the assignment of “science news exercises” designed to promote critical thinking. Students are asked to read a short science news article taken from the popular media (newspaper, science magazine, etc.), contemplate a list of take-home questions that include one or two hypothetical claims about the article, and a week later take a short quiz made up of questions selected from the list. The instructor prepares the questions and copies and distributes them and the news article to the students at biweekly intervals about six or seven times a semester. The authors state, “The ultimate goal of these exercises is to improve students ability to compose a concise, logically persuasive line of reasoning about why a claim should be either conditionally accepted or not accepted.” They point out that their’s and others’ critical thinking exercises have been empirically demonstrated to develop science-related thinking skills in a course without sacrificing the disciplinary content. For other examples of this type, please see W. R. Statkiewicz and R. D. Allen, 1983, “Practical exercises to develop critical thinking skills,” Journal of College Science Teaching, vol. 12, p. 262-266, and M. P. Donovan and R. D. Allen, 1989, “Critical thinking questions for examinations and exercises,” p. 13-16, in L. W. Crow, editor, Enhancing Critical Thinking in the Sciences, Society for College Science Teachers.

Quantitative Exercises: Problem solving is critical thinking; thus, courses such as mathematics, chemistry, and physics, that require the solution of various mathematical problems, automatically teach critical thinking to some extent just by following the traditional curriculum. When students are required to solve math problems, they are practicing critical thinking, whether they know it or not. Mathematics, chemistry, and physics problems belong, of course, to only a limited subset of critical thinking, but this subset is an important one. Indeed, all science courses–including those that do not traditionally require mathematical problem-solving skills at the introductory level, such as biology, geology, oceanography, astronomy, and environmental science–should begin to incorporate some mathematical problems in the curriculum. Asking students to solve math problems in a science gets them thinking about nature and reality in empirical and quantitative terms, key components of critical thinking.

One point, however, has been made by mathematics professor Dr. Robert H. DeVore. Do not, he says, make the mistake of believing that teaching mathematical manipulation alone will lead to critical thinking. Many arithmetical and mathematical problems and exercises will give the student the facility to manipulate numbers, but will not teach critical thinking. Dr. DeVore believes that mathematical word problems, that ask the student to approach the empirical world from a numerical or quantitative viewpoint, are essential to enhancing critical thinking. Indeed, he feels that math students who do not intend to take higher-level math courses should be educated in the context of word problems to the greatest extent possible. Obviously, students who are given math problems to solve in the sciences are essentially working on word problems, so the point is automatically made here.

Here are some examples of mathematical word problems prepared by Dr. DeVore (1-5) and Dr. John B. Scott (6-10) that were specifically devised to enhance critical thinking:

1. Show that to convert a Celsius temperature (C°) to a Fahrenheit temperature (F°), you can double C°, deduct 10% from the result, and add 32°.

2. Bob buys an item for X dollars. He raises the price 15% and sells to Tom. Tom lowers the price he paid by 15% and sells back to Bob. Bob’s gain on the two transactions is $2,812.50. What is the value of X?

3. Does a(bc) = (ab)c on a calculator? First, use variables of your own choosing. Then, try using a = 10-60, b = 10-60, and c = 1060. On my calculator (Sharp EL-506A), the left side of the equation is 10-6 and the right side is 0.

4. Does a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c on a calculator? Again, use variables of your own choosing. Now, try using a = 1, b = 1020, c = -1020. On my calculator, the left side of the equation is 1 and the right side is 0.

5. Is any law of algebra correct on a calculator?

6. Using a standard non-digital watch or clock, at what exact time in hours, minutes, and seconds are the hour and minute hands precisely coincident after 3:00 ?

7. A merchant has a square carpet priced at $1.00 per square foot and a rectangular carpet, with length three times its width, priced at $1.50 per square foot. The combined area of the carpets is 112 square feet, and the value of the rectangular carpet is $8.00 more than the value of the square carpet. Find the dimensions of each carpet.

8. Two airports A and B are 400 miles apart, and B is due east of airport A. A plane flew from A to B in 2 hours and then returned to airport A in 2 1/2 hours. If the wind blew from due west with a constant velocity during the entire trip, find the speed of the the plane in still air and the speed of the wind.

9. A boat can travel 36 miles downstream in 1 hour and 48 minutes, but requires 4 hours for the return trip upstream. Assuming the boat and the stream have constanat velocities, find the velocity of the stream and the velocity of the boat in still water.

10. The periods of time required for two painters to paint one square yard of floor differ by one minute. Together, they can paint 27 square yards in one hour. How long does it take each painter to paint one square yard?

Term Papers: Term papers promote critical thinking among students by requiring that they acquire, synthesize, and logically analyze information, and that they then present this information and their conclusions in written form. Term papers are not traditionally required in math and science courses, although they may be and perhaps should be. We math and science instructors really don’t require that students write very much and, when we do, don’t requre that they use correct spelling, punctuation, grammar, and syntax. At the very least, we should allow term papers as extra credit to give students a means to make up poor exam grades. Students who are doing poorly always ask if there is anything they can do to make up their grade; tell them from the first day that an optional term paper–of appropriate style, content, and length–will enable them to improve their grade in the course. Tell them that poor spelling, grammar, punctuation, syntax, and form will result in lesser credit. This technique can be used in any math or science course and is strongly recommended as a way to improve students’ critical thinking skills. Perhaps as they research and write it, they will begin to think critically about the benefits of keeping up with lectures and studying for exams.

Examinations: Examinations should require that students write or, at least, think. For written exams, short- and long-answer essay questions are the obvious solution. For example, Dr. James T. Hunter, a biology professor, typically uses a few short-answer essay questions on each exam that test the ability of students to analyze information and draw conclusions. This commonly-used technique, by itself, helps to teach critical thinking. Some examples of these questions are as follows:

1. Using diagrams and/or descriptions, describe the synthesis of a protein beginning at the DNA level and ending with a finished protein.

2. Contrast the relative advantages and disadvantages of the light and electron microscopes.

3. Explain the importance of plasmids, biologically and in genetic engineering.

4. In your own words, give at least six ground rules for the collection of clinical specimens for microbiological studies.

 

 

ATTRIBUTES OF A CRITICAL THINKER

• asks pertinent questions 

• assesses statements and arguments 

• is able to admit a lack of understanding or information 

• has a sense of curiosity 

• is interested in finding new solutions 

• is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas

• is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts 

• listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback 

• sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-assessment 

• suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered 

• looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs 

• is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found 

• looks for proof 

• examines problems closely

• is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant 

 Ferrett, S. Peak Performance (1997).

 

Critical thinking is the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking, and being able to think clearly and rationally.  Critical thinking does not mean being argumentative or being critical of others.

Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, they can also be used to support other viewpoints, and to cooperate with others in solving problems and acquiring knowledge.

·           

 

WHY BE CRITICAL? (OR RATIONAL, OR MORAL?)
ON THE JUSTIFICATION OF CRITICAL THINKING

Christine McCarthy
The Ohio State University

 

I. INTRODUCTION

Since critical thinking is evidently more difficult, more troublesome, than ordinary, garden-variety thinking, the question that naturally arises is, why bother. Why not just say, “Forget it…I’ll think (and do, and be) what I want?” This kind of question is not anything new — Plato, for instance, has Socrates raise a similar question in the Republic, namely, “Why be just?”

In this paper I will consider several issues that I take to be related to the justification of critical thinking. The first issue is whether or not the common conceptualization of critical thinking as a dispositional trait possessed and displayed by the critical thinker is correct. The second issue is whether there is indeed some value to the critical thinker in thinking critically, and if so, what sort of value. The third issue is whether there is a relationship between critical thinking, rationality, and morality, and if so, what that might be.

I will argue, first, that while rationality is best construed as dispositional, critical thinking is not. Rather, critical thinking would be better understood as episodic. I shall argue, moreover, that this difference is an important one pedagogically, for while it is possible and desirable to teach, and to test for, an episodic critical thinking, it is neither possible nor desirable to attempt to do the same for the students’ dispositional rationality.

Second, I will argue that critical thinking does have a value, but that, contra Siegel, that value is an instrumental one. That is, one should think critically simply because that sort of thinking is efficacious.

Third, I will argue that, although critical thinking per se is episodic and justified instrumentally, it is to be hoped that a person ultimately will develop the disposition to regularly and habitually think critically, for that disposition is directly related to rationality. Moreover, the person’s disposition to think critically, that is, his or her rationality, is a necessary condition, and, for problems in the moral realm, a sufficient condition, for that person’s morality. Hence, if it is true a) that (episodic) critical thinking is necessary for rationality (the dispositional tendency to think critically), and b) that rationality is in turn necessary for morality, then critical thinking, and the teaching thereof, would be justified not only instrumentally, but would also be justified on moral grounds, provided that morality itself is justified. The question, then, returns to approximately that of Socrates, namely, “Why be moral?”

II. IS CRITICAL THINKING A DISPOSITIONAL TRAIT?

Despite their differences, many of the interpreters of critical thinking, for example, Ennis, Siegel, and McPeck, seem to accept that a full interpretation of critical thinking must recognize in the concept a dispositional element. Siegel, for instance, in Educating Reason, argues that critical thinking is not properly conceived as merely a set of proficiencies (which he terms “the pure skills conception”). Instead, he requires that the term critical thinking be understood to include both a set of proficiencies and the tendency to utilize those proficiencies, the tendency to be “appropriately moved by reasons.”¹ Moreover, Siegel maintains that both components of critical thinking are to be considered equally important. Thus, critical thinking, properly interpreted, is on this account a dispositional trait possessed by critical thinkers.

Siegel terms this dispositional aspect the “critical attitude or critical spirit component of CT.”² It is a “willingness, desire, and disposition to base one’s actions and beliefs on reasons, that is, to do reason assessment and to be guided by the results of such assessment.”³ Here Siegel brings in two different dispositions which for clarity should be distinguished. First, he requires a disposition to do reason assessment, that is, to engage in critical thinking; second, he requires the tendency to be guided by, to actually act upon, the results of that critical thinking. Thus, apparently, critical thinking must actually have issue in action (or belief), before it could be counted as truly critical. But clearly, both these dispositions would seem to be characteristics of the person, the thinker, not features of the thinking itself. Yet this is puzzling, since the question at hand is, what sort of thinking is critical thinking?

In keeping with the assumption that the term critical thinking refers to some sort of dispositional trait of persons, explications of critical thinking often proceed by setting out the required characteristics of critical thinkers. Pedagogically, given this assumption, considerable attention should be given to the problem of teaching persons to be critical thinkers. A course that would merely provide students with a performative knowledge, that would teach how to think critically, would thus be considered incomplete.

The requirement that certain traits of the thinker be included in the conception of critical thinking is sometimes rendered as a requirement for an attitude or disposition toward the activity of thinking. But, it makes a considerable difference conceptually whether it is an attitude that is required (which would be episodic) or a disposition (which of course would not be episodic). A requirement that critical thinking be interpreted as thinking with a particular attitude is compatible with an episodic interpretation of critical thinking. And it may well be true that in no case could one come to actually apply the norms of critical thinking, without having both an understanding of those norms and a willingness to apply them, that is, unless one has a certain attitude.

But the dispositional requirement is more problematic. While a disposition to act in certain ways can be considered a necessary condition of a person’s being a critical thinker, there are several reasons why such a disposition ought not to be taken as a necessary condition for critical thinking per se.

Conceptual Problems

There are conceptual problems with the dispositional account of critical thinking that make such an interpretation untenable. First, by interpreting critical thinking as dispositional, one creates an infinite regress. That is to say, if critical thinking is a disposition to engage in critical thinking, then it is the disposition to engage in… [a disposition to engage in…(a disposition…)], and so on, ad infinitum. To escape such a problem we must either specify something other than critical thinking as that which the critical thinker has a tendency to do, or restrict the meaning of the term critical thinking to the episodic sense, and recognize the disposition to think critically as being only associated with the actor, and not the action.

A second conceptual problem exists. When the term critical thinking is taken to include a reference to something dispositional, one cannot then logically conceive of a single, isolated and never to be repeated instance of critical thinking. There would thus be no point at which one could begin, for the first time, to think critically. Nor could one say of one’s students that they occasionally think critically, nor that they are capable of thinking critically but seldom to do so. Again, the episodic account is required to escape this consequence.

A third conceptual problem: Since a disposition is the sort of thing that can only be meaningfully attributed to a “being” of some sort, and since thinking simpliciter must be construed as an activity or process, and hence is not a being, neither thinking nor critical thinking can meaningfully be said to have any particular disposition. To make such an ascription would simply be to make a category mistake. Hence it would seem that clarity is not served by the assertion that critical thinking, whatever else it may be, is at least in part some sort of disposition. It does, however, make sense to understand the thinking being in the dispositional sense, to regard the person who frequently, consistently, or habitually under certain circumstances actually does engage in critical thinking as being a critical thinker.

Siegel notes this, describing the critical thinker as one who has “…a willingness to conform judgment and action to principle, not simply an ability to so conform,”⁴ who has “a rich emotional make-up of dispositions, habits of mind, values, character traits, and emotions which may be collectively referred to as the critical attitude”.⁵ But, Siegel then goes on to explicitly dissolve the distinction between, and hence to conflate, the dispositional traits of the thinker and the notion of critical thinking per se. “The conception of critical thinking being offered here is as much a conception of a certain sort of person as it is a conception of a certain set of activities and skills. When we take it upon ourselves to educate students so as to foster critical thinking, we are committing ourselves to nothing less than the development of a certain sort of person.”⁶ Siegel continues, the “reasons conception — as any fully developed conception of critical thinking must be — is a conceptioot only of a certain sort of activity, but of a certain sort of person.”⁷

Justificatory Problems

The dispositional interpretation creates some puzzles when we come to the question of the justification of critical thinking, since on this account it is a disposition, not an episodic act, that must be justified. For instance, when Siegel raises the question, “Why should critical thinkers have this tendency to think critically?” there are several ways to answer. First, one might simply say that on this account, far from being a mystery, this is an entirely analytical point. If what we mean by saying a person is “one of a particular kind”, is simply that the person does habitually perform the activity in question, usually with some degree of proficiency, then a critical thinker could be nothing else but a person who has that tendency.

It is likely, however, that the intended question is: why should some person, who is not at present a critical thinker, become one? But, given Siegel’s conception of critical thinking as “the tendency to be appropriately moved by reasons,” there is, again, an analytical answer. If, by the term appropriately moved, one simply means “moved in the way that one ought to be moved,” then again it is analytically and necessarily true that any person should be moved in precisely the way that he or she ought to be moved, that is, in just those ways that would be appropriate. So again, on this interpretation it is analytically true that one should be a critical thinker. But, this conclusion, while undeniable, is not particularly helpful, for one would, I take it, like a justification of an activity to be true by virtue of some reference to the real world, rather than merely be true analytically.

According to Siegel, critical thinking is coextensive with rationality, and hence is justified only if rationality is. But, rationality, it is claimed, is self-justifying. When Siegel asks, “Why be rational?” he sets up a problem to be solved, and he concludes, quite correctly, that should anyone take up this problem, the person will initiate a search for reasons, and in so doing reveal that he or she already accepts the force of reasons, or, in Siegel’s account, values rationality. But, Siegel begs the question here by assuming that some randomly chosen person will necessarily take up the problem. This sort of justification would have no force for the person who in fact does not already value rationality — for instance, the person who looks at the question, “Why be rational?” and says, “beats me,” or “who cares?” Yet it would seem that we would want the justification of rationality, and hence of critical thinking, to do more than just preach to the converted.

These unproductive, analytical, justificatory traps seem to be the result of attempting to justify the disposition to think critically without having previously justified the singular acts of thinking critically, that is, critical thinking understood episodically. It seems, then, that the initial question ought to be: should one, when given some particular problem, think about it in some particular way, namely, critically, rather than in some other way? And if so, why? The third question (and the one that is the most difficult to answer) would then be, which particular way (or ways) of thinking about any particular problem ought one to adopt? That is, what particular acts of thinking are to be counted as critical. It seems clear that we are not in a position to justify any proposed answers to the third question without having first answered the first and second.

In the discussion that follows I will be concerned with only the first two of these questions, which seem relatively simple, but which in fact turn out to be rather controversial. Stipulating that the one particular way of thinking we have in mind will be termed “critical” thinking, these questions can be rephrased, as, first: is there a value to critical thinking in any particular problem, and second, if so, what is that value? I address these questions next.

 

 

ConceptDraw MINDMAP
Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the mental process of clear and rational analysis information, achieved from observation, practice, logic, and/or communication. It includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.

Thinking skills can be divided into critical and creative thinking. Creativity is a way to generate new ideas. To be a good and effective thinker, both kinds of thinking skills are required.

 

The process of critical thinking is based on the intellectual values that go beyond subject-matter divisions and which include: clarity, accuracy, distinctness, clearness, thoroughness and fairness.

Critical thinking steps

ConceptDraw MINDMAP was designed to boost critical thinking of both individuals and groups.

Every single business, job or task, which includes the process of critical thinking, involves:

1.     Goals and objectives which we want to achieve.

2.     Questions and problems we need to solve.

3.     Information and data about our questions and goals.

4.     The way of interpreting of information, concepts and ideas, need to be organized.

5.     Key postulates that are starting points in our thinking.

Mind maps provide an effective tool for organizing and evaluating this information, by presenting ideas, goals and questions in attractive visual form.

There are some examples of MINDMAP idea tree:

Process of critical thinking	Critical thinking

What tools does MINDMAP offer for creative and critical thinking?

1.     User-friendly brainstorming

2.     Automatic mind-map creation

3.     Sort, numerate, link ideas, assign attitude icons to the branches

4.     Automatic changing of map layout

5.     Robust but easy to use graphic tools

 

 

Critical thinking involves both dispositions and abilities:

(See Graphic 1)
Critical Thinking Dispositions

1.     Seek a clear statement of the thesis or question

2.     Seek reasons

3.     Try to be well informed

4.     Use and mention credible sources

5.     Take into account the total situation

6.     Try to remain relevant to the main point

7.     Keep in mind the original and/or basic concern

8.     Look for alternatives

9.     Be open minded: a. Consider seriously other points of view (dialogical thinking); b. Reason from premises with which one disagrees, without letting the disagreement interfere with one’s reasoning (suppositional thinking); c. Withhold judgment when the evidence and reason are insufficient.

10.                       Take a position/change a position when the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so

11.                       Seek as much precision as the subject permits

12.                       Deal in an orderly manner with the parts of a complex whole

13.                       Use one’s critical thinking abilities

14. Be sensitive to the feelings, level of knowledge, and degree of sophistication

Critical Thinking Abilities

(See graphic 3)

1.     Focusing on a question

2.     Analyzing arguments

3.     Asking and answering questions of clarification and/or challenge

4.     Judging the credibility of a source

5.     Observing and judging observation reports

6.     Deducing and judging deductions

7.     Inducing and judging inductions

8.     Making value judgments

9.     Defining terms and judging definitions in 3 dimensions (a. form, b. definitional strategy, c. content)

10.                       Identifying assumptions

11.                       Deciding on an action

12.                       Interacting with others