The 1-st year,

Module 1

№ 2. Subject: History of dentistry. My future profession. Dental specialities. The noun. The plural form of nouns. There is (are).

 

HISTORY OF DENTISTRY

Human beings have always experienced dental problems. The earliest recorded reference to oral disease is from an ancient Sumerian text that describes “tooth worms” as a cause of dental decay. Dentistry as an independent specialty emerged in ancient Egypt; inscriptions on tombstones dating back to 3000 BC indicate that there were tooth doctors among medical specialists. There is no evidence that they performed conservative or restorative dentistry, but it is known that the Etruscans were replacing missing teeth with a kind of bridgework in about 700 BC.

One of the oldest medical papers containing references to dentistry is the Chinese Canon of Medicine, which is reputed to have been written about 2700 BC. The Greek physician Hippocrates described the function and sequence of eruption of teeth as early as 400 BC. In his studies of natural history in the 4^th century BC the Greek philosopher Aristotle investigated the comparative anatomy of the human dentition. Unfortunately, he had many curious views, such as the one stating that men had more teeth than women. It was not until Renaissance that many of these ideas were corrected. In the 1 st century AD the Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases, including bleeding gums and ulcers of the oral cavity, as well as dental treatment. In his book we find recommendations on the relief of toothache and the importance of oral hygiene. Also the Talmud contains specific rules for the hygiene of the oral cavity.

The Greek physician Galen operated successfully on harelip in Rome in the 2^nd century. He also advocated the use of a file in removing decayed portions of a tooth. He was the first to discuss the dental nerves. In addition to treatment of oral diseases and performing extractions, the Romans were skilled in restoring carious teeth with gold crowns and in replacing missing teeth with fixed bridgework. Scrapion, an Arabian physician, who lived in the 10^th century, accurately described the number of roots of the teeth. He stated that the upper molars needed three roots to hold them firm because of their hanging position. Oral hygiene started a new chapter with the invention of a toothbrush by a Chinese dentist in 1498.

In the 16^th century the first specialized papers on dentistry appeared. The most important book on dental anatomy was Treatise on Teeth, written by the Italian anatomist Bartolomeo Eustacheo, who studied the phenomenon of the first and second dentition. French dentist Pierre Fauchard is known as the founder of modem dentistry and the author of the Surgeon Dentist (1728) which established dentistry as a separate branch of medicine. He was the first to use the term caries and to reject the idea that caries was caused by “worms”. He described the basic oral anatomy and function, signs and symptoms of oral pathology, operative methods for removing decay, replacement of missing teeth. In 1771, the British surgeon John Hunter published his Natural History of Human Teeth which forms the foundation of all modern texts on the anatomy of the jaws and teeth. He was the first to make a truly scientific study of the teeth. He also reformed their classification and named the incisors, cuspids, bicuspids and molars.

Dentistry emerged as a profession in the mid-1800’s in the USA with the founding of the first dental school in the world, the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, In 1844. Horace Wells, an American dentist, was the first to use nitrous oxide for the relief of pain during tooth extraction. He initiated the use of nitrous oxide inhalation during dental therapy and founded the concept of inhalation analgesia and anaesthesia. The medical community later modified and adopted inhalation anaesthesia as a standard surgical management procedure. Green Vardiman Black was the leading reformer of American dentistry. He introduced his classification of cavities and described the physical properties of enamel. He researched cavity preparation and developed modern techniques for filling teeth based on biological principles and microscopic evaluation. These improvements were also made possible by the introduction of the dental engine in the 187O’s.

In 1935 polymerized acrylic resin was introduced as a base for artificial teeth. Later developments include: the use of diamond burs for the preparation of cavities and surfaces, the use of water-cooled drills to reduce heat and pain, the development of stronger and lighter materials for dentures and fillings, experiments to anchor plastic teeth in jawbones by the use of implants, and the use of lasers in cavity preparation.

 

My future profession.

 

         The dentist today undergoes a period of training at a university which lasts 5 years. The dentist has a wide choice of opportunities within his profession: general practice, school dental service, hospital service, university teaching and research, industrial dental service and the armed forces.

         A dentist may also take additional higher qualifications and become a specialist in a particular branch of dentistry. He is the captain of a team which can practice in the most efficient way. The dentist carries out all the treatment which he alone can perform, whilst the other members of the team – auxiliary, hygienist, surgery assistants and technician – perform all the work which a dentist can delegate.

         Dental auxiliary is permitted to carry out the following simple treatment on children, as prescribed in writing by a dentist and under his supervision. Four classes of dental auxiliary are recognized: therapists, hygienists, technicians and surgery assistants.

         Therapists are permitted to carry out routine conservation treatment, the extraction of deciduous teeth and prophylactic treatment.

         Dental hygienists are permitted to carry out the removal of plaque and calculus, provide preventive instruction and advice.

         The dental technician is a highly skilled craftsman who constructs dentures, crowns, gold inlays. He works to the dentist’s prescription in a dental laboratory.

 

 

 

VIDEO

DENTAL SPECIALITIES

 

 

What is a Noun?

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:

Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.

Portia White was an opera singer.

The bus inspector looked at all the passengers’ passes.

According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.

Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

Noun Gender

Many commoouns, like “engineer” or “teacher,” can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender — for example, a man was called an “author” while a woman was called an “authoress” — but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.

David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.

Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.

The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn’t decide whether he was advertising for a “waiter” or a “waitress”

Noun Plurals

Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding “-s” or “-es”, as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:

When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.

Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.

As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an unexpected echo.

I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.

He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.

Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.

There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding “s”. Some words ending in “f” form the plural by deleting “f” and adding “ves,” and words ending in “y” form the plural by deleting the “y” and adding “ies,” as in the following pairs of sentences:

The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.

There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.

Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.

The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.

The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, “Are you a mouse or a man?”

The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.

Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.

Possessive Nouns

In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter “s.”

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in “s” by adding an apostrophe and “s,” as in the following sentences:

The red suitcase is Cassandra’s.

The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister’s.

The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant’s screams.

The miner’s face was covered in coal dust.

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in “s” by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and “s,” as in the following examples:

The bus’s seats are very uncomfortable.

The bus’ seats are very uncomfortable.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus’s eggs.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus’ eggs.

Felicia Hemans’s poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron’s.

Felicia Hemans’ poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron’s.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in “s” by adding an apostrophe and a “s,” as in the following examples:

The children’s mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.

The sheep’s pen was mucked out every day.

Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury’s verdict is not always final.

The men’s hockey team will be play as soon as the women’s team is finished.

The hunter followed the moose’s trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in “s” by adding an apostrophe:

The concert was interrupted by the dogs’ barking, the ducks’ quacking, and the babies’ squalling.

The janitors’ room is downstairs and to the left.

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels’ nest.

The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries’ bindings.

Religion is usually the subject of the roommates’ many late night debates.

Using Possessive Nouns

When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:

The miner’s face was covered in coal dust.

Here the possessive noun “miner’s” is used to modify the noun “face” and together with the article “the,” they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence’s subject.

The concert was interrupted by the dogs’ barking, the ducks’ quacking, and the babies’ squalling.

In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun “dogs”‘ modifies “barking”, “ducks”‘ modifies “quacking,” and “babies”‘ modifies “squalling.”

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus’s eggs.

In this example the possessive noun “platypus’s” modifies the noun “eggs” and the noun phrase “the platypus’s eggs” is the direct object of the verb “crushed.”

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels’ nest.

In this sentence the possessive noun “squirrels”‘ is used to modify the noun “nest” and the noun phrase “the squirrels’ nest” is the object of the infinitive phrase “to locate.”

Types Of Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as “Canada” or “Louise,” and do not capitalise others, such as “badger” or “tree” (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the commooun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.

If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.

Proper Nouns

You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a commooun

In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:

The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.

Many people dread Monday mornings.

Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.

Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.

Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.

Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense — usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A commooun is the opposite of a proper noun.

In each of the following sentences, the commoouns are highlighted:

According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.

All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.

I don’t understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.

The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.

Many child-care workers are underpaid.

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of commoouns, as in the following examples:

The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.

The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.

Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.

The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child’s first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.

Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:

The judge handed the files to the clerk.

Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.

The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.

As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet’s rendition of a minuet.

The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.

Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.

Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.

Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:

We painted the table red and the chairs blue.

Since he inherited his aunt’s library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.

Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.

The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.

Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:

Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

The word “oxygen” cannot normally be made plural.

Oxygen is essential to human life.

Since “oxygen” is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb “is” rather than the plural verb “are.”

We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.

You cannot make the noun “furniture” plural.

The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.

Since “furniture” is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, “is heaped.”

The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.

You cannot make the non-countable noun “gravel” plural.

Gravel is more expensive than I thought.

Since “gravel” is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form “is.”

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a nouaming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:

The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

The collective noun “geese” takes the singular verb “spends.”

The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

In this example the collective noun “jury” is the subject of the singular compound verb “is dining.”

The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.

Here the collective noun “committee” takes a singular verb, “meets.”

The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

In this sentence the word “class” is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb “was startled”.

 

 

What is a Verb?

The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.

In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:

Dracula bites his victims on the neck.

The verb “bites” describes the action Dracula takes.

In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.

Here the compound verb “will plant” describes an action that will take place in the future.

My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.

In this sentence, the verb “was” (the simple past tense of “is”) identifies a particular person and the verb “remembered” describes a mental action.

Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.

In this sentence, the compound verb “were destroyed” describes an action which took place in the past.

Verbs in the English language are a lexically and morphologically distinct part of speech which describes an action, an event, or a state.

While English has many irregular verbs, for the regular ones the conjugation rules are quite straightforward. Being part of an analytic language, English regular verbs are not very much inflected; all tenses, aspects and moods except the simple present and the simple past are periphrastic, formed with auxiliary verbs and modals.

Principal parts

A regular English verb has only one principal part, the infinitive or dictionary form (which is identical to the simple present tense for all persons and numbers except the third person singular). All other forms of a regular verb can be derived straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of four forms (e.g. exist, exists, existed, existing)

English irregular verbs (except to be) have at most three principal parts:

Strong verbs like write have all three distinct parts, for a total of five forms (e. g. write, writes, wrote, written, writing). The more irregular weak verbs also require up to three forms to be learned.

The highly irregular copular verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been, of which only one is derivable from a principal part (being is derived from be). On the history of this verb, see Indo-European copula.

Verbs had more forms when the pronoun thou was still in regular use and there was a number distinction in the second person. To be, for instance, had art, wast and wert.

Most of the strong verbs that survive in modern English are considered irregular. Irregular verbs in English come from several historical sources; some are technically strong verbs (i. e. their forms display specific vowel changes of the type known as ablaut in linguistics); others have had various phonetic changes or contractions added to them over the history of English.

Infinitive and basic form

Formation

The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word. When it is being used as a verbal noun, the particle to is usually prefixed to it. When the infinitive stands as the predicate of an auxiliary verb, to may be omitted, depending on the requirements of the idiom.

Uses

·                    The infinitive, in English, is one of two verbal nouns: To write is to learn.

·                    The infinitive, either marked with to or unmarked, is used as the complement of many auxiliary verbs: I will write a novel about talking beavers; I am really going to write it.

·                    The basic form also forms the English imperative mood: Write these words!

·                    The basic form makes the English subjunctive mood: If you write it, they will read.

Third person singular

Formation

The third person singular in regular verbs in English is distinguished by the suffix -s. In English spelling, this -s is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run → runs.

If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ (see IPA) that is not followed by a silent E, the suffix is written -es: buzz → buzzes; catch → catches.

If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to an i and -es is affixed to the end: cry → cries.

Verbs ending in o typically add -es: veto → vetoes.

In Early Modern English, some dialects distinguished the third person singular with the suffix –th; after consonants this was written -eth, and some consonants were doubled when this was added: run → runneth.

Use

·                    The third person singular is used exclusively in the third person form of the English simple “present tense”, which often has other uses besides the simple present: He writes airport novels about anthropomorphic rodents.

Exception

English preserves a number of preterite-present verbs, such as can and may. These verbs lack a separate form for the third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving preterite-present verbs in modern English are auxiliary verbs. The verb will, although historically not a preterite-present verb, has come to be inflected like one when used as an auxiliary; it adds -s in the third person singular only when it is a full verb: Whatever she wills to happen will make life annoying for everyone else.

Present participle

Formation

The present participle is made by the suffix -ing: go → going.

If the base ends in silent e, it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe → believing.

If the e is not silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing.

If the base ends in -ie, change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying.

If:

·                    the base form ends in a single consonant; and

·                    a single vowel precedes that consonant; and

·                    the last syllable of the base form is stressed

then the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix: set → setting; occur → occurring.

In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to doubling even when the last syllable is not stressed: yodel → yodelling, travel → travelling; in American English, these follow the rule: yodeling, traveling. Similarly focus → focussing (AE focusing).

Irregular forms include:

·                    singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not dropped to avoid confusion with singing;

·                    ageing, in British English, where the expected form aging is ambiguous as to whether it has a hard or soft g;

·                    words ending in -c, which add k before the -ing, for example, panicking, frolicking, and bivouacking.

·                    a number of words that are subject to the doubling rule even though they do not fall squarely within its terms, such as diagramming, kidnapping, programming, and worshipping.

Uses

·                    The present participle is another English verbal noun: Writing is learning (see gerund for this sense).

·                    It is used as an adjective: a writing desk; building beavers.

·                    It is used to form a past, present or future tense with progressive or imperfective force: He is writing another long book about beavers.

·                    It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried writing about opossums instead, but his muse deserted him.

Preterite

Formation

In weak verbs, the preterite is formed with the suffix –ed: work → worked.

If the base ends in e, -d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye > dyed.

Where the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the -ed is added; deny → denied.

Where the base ends in a vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy → alloyed.

The rule for doubling the final consonant in regular weak verbs for the preterite is the same as the rule for doubling in the present participle; see above.

Many strong verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite differently, for which see that article.

Use

·                    The preterite is used for the English simple (non-iterative or progressive) past tense. He wrote two more chapters about the dam at Kashawigamog Lake.

Past participle

Formation

In regular weak verbs, the past participle is always the same as the preterite.

Irregular verbs may have separate preterites and past participles; see Wiktionary appendix: Irregular English verbs.

Uses

·                    The past participle is used with the auxiliary have for the English perfect tenses: They have written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent of the lodge… (With verbs of motion, an archaic form with be may be found in older texts: he is come.)

·                    With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what it’s like to gnaw down trees!

·                    It is used as an adjective: the written word; a broken dam.

·                    It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: 500,000 words got written in record time.

Tenses of the English verb

English verbs, like those in many other western European languages, have more tenses than forms; tenses beyond the ones possible with the five forms listed above are formed with auxiliary verbs, as are the passive voice forms of these verbs. Important auxiliary verbs in English include will, used to form the future tense; shall, formerly used mainly for the future tense, but now used mainly for commands and directives; be, have, and do, which are used to form the supplementary tenses of the English verb, to add aspect to the actions they describe, or for negation.

English verbs display complex forms of negation. While simple negation was used well into the period of early Modern English (Touch not the royal person!) in contemporary English negation almost always requires that the negative particle be attached to an auxiliary verb such as do or be. I go not is archaic; I don’t go or I am not going are what the contemporary idiom requires.

English exhibits similar idiomatic complexity with the interrogative mood, which in Indo-European languages is not, strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western European languages, English historically allowed questions to be asked by inverting the position of verb and subject: Whither goest thou? Now, in English, questions are trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary verbs.

Overview of tenses

In English grammar, tense refers to any conjugated form expressing time, aspect or mood. The large number of different composite verb forms means that English has the richest and subtlest system of tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be confusing for foreign learners; however, the English verb is in fact very systematic once one understands that in each of the three time spheres – past, present and future – English has a basic tense which can then be made either perfect or progressive (continuous) or both.

Because of the neatness of this system, modern textbooks on English generally use the terminology in this table. What was traditionally called the “perfect” is here called “present perfect” and the “pluperfect” becomes “past perfect”, in order to show the relationships of the perfect forms to their respective simple forms. Whereas in other Germanic languages, or in Old English, the “perfect” is just a past tense, the English “present perfect” has a present reference; it is both a past tense and a present tense, describing the connection between a past event and a present state.

However, historical linguists sometimes prefer terminology which applies to all Germanic languages and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when describing wrote as a historical form, for example, we would say “preterite” rather than “past simple”.

This table, of course, omits a number of forms which can be regarded as additional to the basic system:

·                    the intensive present I do write

·                    the intensive past I did write

·                    the habitual past I used to write

·                    the “shall future” I shall write

·                    the “going-to future” I am going to write

·                    the “future in the past” I was going to write

·                    the conditional I would write

·                    the perfect conditional I would have written

·                    the (increasingly seldom used) subjunctives, if I be, if I were.

Some systems of English grammar eliminate the future tense altogether, treating will/would simply as modal verbs, in the same category as other modal verbs such as can/could and may/might. See Grammatical tense for a more technical discussion of this subject.

A full inventory of verb forms follows.

Present simple

Or simple present.

·                    Affirmative: I write; He writes

·                    Negative: He does not (doesn’t) write

·                    Interrogative: Does he write?

·                    Negative interrogative: Does he not write? (Doesn’t he write?)

Note that the “simple present” in idiomatic English often identifies habitual or customary action:

He writes about beavers (understanding that he does so all the time.)

It is used with stative verbs:

She thinks beavers are remarkable

It can also have a future meaning (though much less commonly than in many other languages):

She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday.

Put Tuesday in the plural, and She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesdays means that she goes to Milwaukee every Tuesday.

The present simple has an intensive or emphatic form with “do”: He does write. In the negative and interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the non-emphatic forms. It is typically used as a response to the question Does he write, whether that question is expressed or implied, and says that indeed, he does write.

The idiomatic use of the negative particles not and -n’t in the interrogative form is also worth noting. In formal literary English of the sort in which contractions are avoided, not attaches itself to the main verb: Does he not write? When the colloquial contraction -n’t is used, this attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn’t he write? This in fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still occasionally found in poetry: *Does not he write?

Present progressive

Or present continuous.

·                    Affirmative: He is writing

·                    Negative: He is not writing

·                    Interrogative: Is he writing?

·                    Negative interrogative: Is he not writing? (Isn’t he writing?)

This form describes the simple engagement in a present activity, with the focus on action in progress “at this very moment”. It too can indicate a future, particularly when discussing plans already in place: I am flying to Paris tomorrow. Used with “always” it suggests irritation; compare He always does that (neutral) with He’s always doing that. Word order differs here in the negative interrogative between the hyperformal is he not writing and the usual isn’t he writing?

Present perfect

Traditionally just called the perfect.

·                    Affirmative: He has written

·                    Negative: He has not written

·                    Interrogative: Has he written?

·                    Negative interrogative: Has he not written? (Hasn’t he written?)

This indicates that a past event has one of a range of possible relationships to the present. This may be a focus on present result: He has written a very fine book (and look, here it is, we have it now). Or it may indicate a time-frame which includes the present. I have lived here since my youth (and I still do). Compare: Have you written a letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did you write a letter this morning? (it is now afternoon). The perfect tenses are frequently used with the adverbs already or recently or with since clauses. Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed action, the present perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was ten years old.) or continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.) action:

In addition to these normal uses where the time frame either is the present or includes the present, the “have done” construct is used in temporal clauses to define a future time: When you have written it, show it to me. It also forms a past infinitive, used when infinitive constructions require a past perspective: Mozart is said to have written his first symphony at the age of eight. (Notice that if not for the need of an infinitive, the simple past would have been used here: He wrote it at age eight.) The past infinitive is also used in the conditional perfect.

Present perfect progressive

Or continuous.

·  Affirmative: He has been writing

·  Negative: He has not been writing

·  Interrogative: Has he been writing?

·  Negative interrogative: Has he not been writing? (Hasn’t he been writing?)

Used for unbroken action in the past which continues right up to the present. I have been writing this paper all morning (and still am).

Past simple

Or preterite.

·                    Affirmative: He wrote

·                    Negative: He did not write

·                    Interrogative: Did he write?

·                    Negative interrogative: Did he not write? (Didn’t he write?)

The same change of word order in the negative interrogative that distinguishes the formal and informal register also applies to the preterite. Note also that the preterite form is also used only in the affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or interrogative, he wrote not and wrote he? are archaic and not used in modern English. They must instead be supplied by periphrastic forms.

This tense is used for a single event in the past, sometimes for past habitual action, and in chronological narration. Like the present simple, it has emphatic forms with “do”: he did write.

Although it is sometimes taught that the difference between the present perfect and the simple past is that the perfect denotes a completed action whereas the past denotes an incomplete action, this theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for completed actions. (Indeed the English preterite comes from the Proto-Indo-European perfect.) And either can be used for incomplete actions. The real distinction is that the present perfect is used when the time frame either is the present or includes the present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is in the absolute past.

The “used to” past tense for habitual actions is probably best included under the bracket of the past simple. Compare:

When I was young I played football every Saturday.

When I was young I used to play football every Saturday.

The difference is slight, but “used to” stresses the regularity, and the fact that the action has been discontinued.

Past continuous

Or imperfect or past progressive.

·                    Affirmative: He was writing

·                    Negative: He was not writing

·                    Interrogative: Was he writing?

·                    Negative interrogative: Was he not writing? (Wasn’t he writing?)

This is typically used for two events in parallel:

While I was washing the dishes my wife was walking the dog.

Or for an interrupted action (the past simple being used for the interruption):

While I was washing the dishes I heard a loud noise.

Or when we are focussing on a point in the middle of a longer action:

At three o’clock yesterday I was working in the garden. (Contrast: I worked in the garden all day yesterday.)

Past perfect

Or the “pluperfect”

·                    Affirmative: He had written

·                    Negative: He had not / hadn’t written

·                    Interrogative: Had he written?

·                    Negative interrogative: Had he not written? (Hadn’t he written?)

Past perfect progressive

Or “pluperfect progressive” or “continuous”

·                    Affirmative: He had been writing

·                    Negative: He had not been / hadn’t been writing

·                    Interrogative: Had he been writing?

·                    Negative interrogative: Had he not been writing? (Hadn’t he been writing?)

Relates to the past perfect much as the present perfect progressive relates to the present perfect, but tends to be used with less precision.

Future simple

·                    Affirmative: He will write

·                    Negative: He will not / won’t write

·                    Interrogative: Will he write?

·                    Negative interrogative: Will he not write? (Won’t he write?)

See the article Shall and Will for a discussion of the two auxiliary verbs used to form the simple future in English. There is also a future with “go” which is used especially for intended actions, and for the weather, and generally is more common in colloquial speech:

I’m going to write a book some day.

I think it’s going to rain.

But the will future is preferred for spontaneous decisions:

Jack: “I think we should have a barbeque!”

Jill: “Good idea! I’ll go get the coal.”

Future progressive

·                    Affirmative: He will be writing

·                    Negative: He will not / won’t be writing

·                    Interrogative: Will he be writing?

·                    Negative interrogative: Will he not be writing? (Won’t he be writing?)

Used especially to indicate that an event will be in progress at a particular point in the future: This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.

Future perfect

·                    Affirmative: He will have written

·                    Negative: He will not / won’t have written

·                    Interrogative: Will he have written?

·                    Negative interrogative: Will he not have written? (Won’t he have written?)

Used for something which will be completed by a certain time (perfect in the literal sense) or which leads up to a point in the future which is being focused on.

I will have finished my essay by Thursday.

By then she will have been there for three weeks.

Future perfect progressive

Or future perfect continuous.

·                    Affirmative: He will have been writing

·                    Negative: He will not / won’t have been writing

·                    Interrogative: Will he have been writing?

·                    Negative interrogative: Will he not have been writing? (Won’t he have been writing?)

Conditional

Or past subjunctive.

·                    Affirmative: He would write

·                    Negative: He would not / wouldn’t write

·                    Interrogative: Would he write?

·                    Negative interrogative: Would he not write?

Used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or explicit doubt or “if-clause”; may refer to conditional statements in present or future time:

I would like to pay now if it’s not too much trouble. (in present time; doubt of possibility is explicit)

I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit)

I would do it if she asked me to. (in future time; doubt is explicit)

I would do it. (in future time; doubt is implicit)

(A very common error by foreign learners is to put the would into the if-clause itself. A humorous formulation of the rule for the EFL classroom runs: “If and would you never should, if and will makes teacher ill!” But of course, both will and would CAN occur in an if-clause when expressing volition. A student of English may rarely encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as an archaic form.)

Conditional perfect

Or pluperfect subjunctive/past-perfect subjunctive.

·                    Affirmative: He would have written

·                    Negative: He would not / wouldn’t have written

·                    Interrogative: Would he have written?

·                    Negative interrogative: Would he not have written?

Used as the past tense of the conditional form; expresses thoughts which are or may be contrary to present fact:

I would have set an extra place if I had known you were coming. (fact that an extra place was not set is implicit; conditional statement is explicit)

I would have set an extra place, but I didn’t because Mother said you weren’t coming. (fact that a place was not set is explicit; conditional is implicit)

I would have set an extra place. (fact that a place was not set is implicit, conditional is implicit)

Present subjunctive

The form is always identical to the infinitive. This means that, apart from the verb “to be”, it is distinct only in the third person singular and the obsolete second person singular.

·                    Indicative: I write, thou writest, he writes, I am

·                    Subjunctive: I write, thou write, he write, I be

Used to refer to situations which are or may be contrary to fact in the present or future; the infactuality is rarely explicit:

I insist that he come at once. (present time; fact that the action is not currently occuring is implicit)

I insist that he come when I call. (future time; fact that the action may or may not occur is implicit)

(The present subjunctive is often interchangeable with the past subjunctive like so: I insist that he must come at once.)

Imperfect subjunctive

The use of the old term “imperfect” shows that this form is so rare that it has not been integrated into the modern system of English tense classification. The imperfect subjunctive is identical to the past simple in every verb except the verb “to be”. With this verb, there is an option, but no longer a necessity, of using were throughout ALL forms (i.e., I wish I were an Oscar Meyer weiner, vs. I wish I was a girl).

·                    Indicative: I was

·                    Subjunctive: traditionally I were but now more commonly I was.

·                    If I were rich, I would retire to the South of France.

Auxilliary Verbs

An auxiliary verb is a verb that accompanies a main verb to indicate the tense, voice, mood, number, or person where this is not indicated by inflection:

The concert was enjoyed by all.

You will drown in a sea of homework if you do not work
harder.

The auxiliary verb is also known as the helping verb.

What Is An Adjective?

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.

Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.

The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coal mines are dark and dank.

Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.

A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence

My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

for example, the adverb “intricately” modifies the adjective “patterned.”

Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence

Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.

for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Grammarians also consider articles (“the,” “a,” “an”) to be adjectives.

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective (“my,” “your,” “his,” “her,” “its,” “our,” “their”) is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

I can’t complete my assignment because I don’t have the textbook.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective “my” modifies “assignment” and the noun phrase “my assignment” functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form “mine” is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

What is your phone number.

Here the possessive adjective “your” is used to modify the noun phrase “phone number”; the entire noun phrase “your phone number” is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form “yours” is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.

The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.

In this example, the possessive adjective “his” modifies the noun phrase “favourite type of bread” and the entire noun phrase “his favourite type of bread” is the direct object of the verb “sold.”

After many years, she returned to her homeland.

Here the possessive adjective “her” modifies the noun “homeland” and the noun phrase “her homeland” is the object of the preposition “to.” Note also that the form “hers” is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

We have lost our way in this wood.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective “our” modifies “way” and the noun phrase “our way” is the direct object of the compound verb “have lost”. Note that the possessive pronoun form “ours” is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.

Here the possessive adjective “their” modifies “parents” and the noun phrase “their parents” is the object of the preposition “by.” Note that the possessive pronoun form “theirs” is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective “its” modifies “ball” and the noun phrase “its ball” is the object of the verb “chased.” Note that “its” is the possessive adjective and “it’s” is a contraction for “it is.”

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives “this,” “these,” “that,” “those,” and “what” are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:

When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective “that” modifies the noun “cord” and the noun phrase “that cord” is the object of the preposition “over.”

This apartment needs to be fumigated.

Here “this” modifies “apartment” and the noun phrase “this apartment” is the subject of the sentence.

Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.

In the subordinate clause, “those” modifies “plates” and the noun phrase “those plates” is the object of the verb “preferred.” In the independent clause, “these” is the direct object of the verb “bought.”

Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective (“which” or “what”) is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own:

Which plants should be watered twice a week?

Like other adjectives, “which” can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, “which” modifies “plants” and the noun phrase “which paints” is the subject of the compound verb “should be watered”:

What book are you reading?

In this sentence, “what” modifies “book” and the noun phrase “what book” is the direct object of the compound verb “are reading.”

Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrasé́́́́, as in the following sentences:

Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective “many” modifies the noun “people” and the noun phrase “many people” is the subject of the sentence.

I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective “any” modifies the noun “mail” and the noun phrase “any mail” is the direct object of the compound verb “will send.”

They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun “goldfish” and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb “found”:

The title of Kelly’s favourite game is “All dogs go to heaven.”

Here the indefinite pronoun “all” modifies “dogs” and the full title is a subject complement.

́́́́ THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

There are three degrees of comparison:
POSITIVE degree, COMPARATIVE degree, SUPERLATIVE degree:

01. COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY

AS …. AS (for positive comparisons),
(NOT) SO …. AS (for negative comparisons).

Her pronunciation is AS good AS yours.
His pronunciation is NOT SO good AS yours.

Note: We may say NOT AS …. AS, especially after a contracted form: Her pronunciation isn’t AS good AS yours.

 

02. COMPARATIVE OF INFERIORITY

LESS ….. THAN + the adjective.

It is LESS cold today THAN it was yesterday.
Kelly is LESS old THAN Sandra.

 

03. SUPERLATIVE OF INFERIORITY

THE LEAST ……. OF (or IN) + the adjective.

Sunday was THE LEAST cold day of the week.
Christina is THE LEAST old girl in that class.

 

04. COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE OF SUPERIORITY

a) Monosyllabic adjectives form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE by adding – ER and – EST to the POSITIVE degree.

Exceptions:

b) Adjectives with more than two syllables form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE by putting MORE and THE MOST in front of the adjective.

c) Disyllabic (two syllables) adjectives form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE in two different ways:

1. Adjectives ending in ED, ING, RE, FUL, OUS and those with the stress on the first syllable usually take MORE and THE MOST:

2. Adjectives ending in ER, Y, LE, OW and those with the stress on the second syllable add ER and EST to the POSITIVE degree.

Note: Adjectives ending in SOME and the words cheerful, common, cruel, pleasant, quiet, civil may be compared by adding ER and EST or by MORE and MOST.

or

 

05. ORTHOGRAPHIC NOTES
a) Add R and ST to adjectives ending in E.

b) VOWEL SANDWICH (VOWEL + CONSONANT + VOWEL) (THE LAST VOWEL IS DOUBLED)

NO SANDWICH (JUST THE SUFFIX)

c) Adjectives ending in – y preceded by a consonant, change Y into I before ER and EST.

Exceptions:

6. IRREGULAR COMPARISONS

NOTES:
1. FARTHER and FARTHEST generally refer to distance; FURTHER and FURTHEST also refer to distance but they may have the meaning of “additional”.
I live farther from here than you do.
Give me further details.

2. OLDER and OLDEST refer to persons or things; ELDER and ELDEST can only be used for members of the same family:
My elder sister is afraid of mice.
My older friend is afraid of wasps.

but ELDER caot be placed before THAN so OLDER is used:
My sister is two years older than I am.

 

7. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARATIVES

a) Gradual increase:
Those exercises are getting EASIER AND EASIER. OR
Those exercises are getting MORE AND MORE EASY.

The weather is getting NICER AND NICER. OR
The weather is getting MORE AND MORE NICE.

The rent of our flat is getting MORE AND MORE EXPENSIVE.

 

B) Parallel increase: (THE + comparative …… THE + comparative).
THE MORE I see you THE MORE I want you.
THE HOTTER, THE BETTER.
THE MORE he studies, THE BETTER he becomes.

 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

1. COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE of SUPERIORITY.

a) Monosyllabic adverbs from their comparative and superlative of superiority in the same way as monosyllabic adjectives.

b) Adverbs of more than one syllable take MORE and MOST.

Exception:

2. IRREGULAR COMPARISONS

 

WORD  ORDER

 

Declarative Sentences

 

 

Negative Sentences

 

 

 

General Questions

(General questions require the answer yes or no)

 

 

Special Questions

 

(Special questions refer to a various parts of the sentence)

 

 

Alternative Questions

 

(Alternative questions imply choice and consist of two parts connected by the conjunction or)

 

 

Question Tags

 

(Question tags sconsist of two parts. The first part is a declarative sentence, the second – a short general question. The second part consists of the subject expressed by personal pronoun corresponding to the subject of the first part and of the auxiliary or modal verb. If the first part of the question is positive, the second is negative and vice versa)

 

 

Table of Irregular Verbs

 

 

ABBREVIATIONS

 

 

 

  Literature:

Principle:

1. Ісаєва О.С., Кучумова Н.В., Шумило М.Ю. English for dentists: Англійська мова для студентів-стоматологів: Підручник.  – Львів: Кварт, 2008. – 421 с.

2. Аврахова Л.Я., Лавриш Ю.Е. English for dentists: Навчальний посібник для вищих навчальних медичних закладів ІІІ – IV рівнів акредитації. – К.: Видавничий дім «Асканія», 2008. – 366 с.

3. Цебрук І.Ф., Венгренович А.А., Венгренович Н.Ф. Англійська мова для студентів-стоматологів: Підручник.  – Івано_Франківськ: ДВНЗ «Івано-Франківський націон. медичний університет», 2012. – 480 с.

4. Матеріали розміщені на сайті Тернопільського державного медичного університету імені І.Я.Горбачевського  http://intranet.tdmu.edu.ua/data/kafedra/internal/index.php?path=in_mow/classes_stud/

 

 

Additional:

1. Шиленко Р.В., Мухина В.В., Скрипникова Т.П. Англійська мова. / Практичний курс для студентів стоматологічного факультету/. – Полтава, 1998. – 560 с.

2. Демченко О.Й., Костяк Н.В. Англійська мова для студентів–медиків : Посібник для підготовки до іспиту. – Тернопіль: Укрмедкнига, 2001.– 80с

3. Граматика сучасної англійської мови (довідник) [Текст] : довідник / Г. В. Верба, Л. Г. Верба. – К. : Логос, 2000. – 352 с.

4. Матеріали кафедри.

 

Prepared by H.Y.Pavlyshyn

Adopted at the Chair Sitting

June 10, 2013. Minutes № 11.