N 3. World Health Organization. Pronouns
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World Health Organization |
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Specialized agency of the United Nations |
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Membership |
193 member states |
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Director-General |
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The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health Organization, which had been an agency of the League of Nations.
Mission
WHO’s constitution states that its mission “is the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health.” Its major task is to combat disease, especially key infectious diseases, and to promote the general health of the peoples of the world. The constitution of WHO defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not as consisting only of the absence of disease or infirmity or mental retardation. As well as coordinating international efforts to monitor outbreaks of infectious disease such as SARS, malaria, and AIDS, it also has programs to combat such diseases, by developing and distributing vaccines. After years of fighting smallpox, WHO declared in 1979 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be completely eliminated by deliberate human design. WHO is nearing success in developing vaccines against malaria and schistosomiasis and aims to eradicate polio within the next few years. The organization has already endorsed the world’s first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe from October 3, 2006, making it an international standard.
In addition to its work in eradicating disease, WHO also carries out campaigns — for example, to boost consumption of fruits and vegetables worldwide, or to discourage tobacco consumption.
Experts met at the WHO headquarters in
WHO also conducts research: for instance, whether or not the electromagnetic field surrounding cell phones has a negative influence on health. Some of this work can be controversial, such as the April 2003 WHO report which recommended that sugar be no more than 10% of a healthy diet, which led to lobbying by the sugar industry against this recommendation.
Additional Responsibilities
In addition to WHO’s stated mission, international treaties assign the Organization a variety of responsibilities. For instance, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances call on WHO to issue binding scientific and medical assessments of psychoactive drugs and recommend how they should be regulated. In this way, WHO acts as a check on the power of the drug policymaking Commission on Narcotic Drugs.
WHO also compiles the widely followed International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The tenth revision of the ICD was released in 1992 and a search able version is available online on the WHO website. Later revisions are indexed and available in hard copy versions. The WHO does not permit simultaneous classification in two separate areas.
The WHO also maintains a model list of essential medicines that countries’ health care systems should make available and affordable to people.
Structure
WHO Headquarters in
WHO Member States appoint delegations to the World Health Assembly, WHO’s supreme decision-making body.All UN member states are eligible for WHO membership, and, according to the WHO web site, “Other countries may be admitted as members when their application has been approved by a simple majority vote of the World Health Assembly.” The WHO has 193 member states.
The Republic of China (
The WHO Assembly generally meets in May each year, and as well as appointing the Director-General (for five-year terms), supervises the financial policies of the Organization, and reviews and approves the proposed programme budget. The Assembly elects 34 members who are technically qualified in the field of health for three-year terms to an Executive Board. The main functions of the Board are to give effect to the decisions and policies of the Assembly, to advise it and generally to facilitate its work.
Membership
WHO has 193 Member States, including all UN Member States except Liechtenstein , and 2 non-UN-members, Niue and the Cook Islands. Territories that are not UN Member States may join as Associate Members (with full information but limited participation and voting rights) if approved by an Assembly vote: Puerto Rico and Tokelau are Associate Members. Entities may also be granted observer status – examples include the Palestinian Liberation Organization and the Holy See (Vatican City).
Funding
WHO is financed by contributions from member states and from donors. In recent years, WHO’s work has involved more collaboration, currently around 80 such partnerships, with NGOs and the pharmaceutical industry, as well as with foundations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation. Voluntary contributions to the WHO from national and local governments, foundations and NGOs, other UN organizations, and the private sector (including pharmaceutical companies), now exceed that of assessed contributions (dues) from its 193 member nations. [5]PDF (30.1 KiB)
People
The day-to-day work of WHO is carried out by its Secretariat, which is staffed by some 8,500 health and other experts and support staff, working at headquarters, in the six regional offices, and in the individual representation offices in 147 countries. WHO is also represented by WHO Goodwill Ambassadors.
Regional Offices
Regional offices and regions of the WHO: Africa; HQ: Brazzaville, Congo Americas; HQ: Washington, DC, USA Eastern Med.; HQ: Cairo, Egypt Europe; HQ: Copenhagen, Denmark South East Asia; HQ: New Delhi, India Western Pacific; HQ: Manila, Philippines
Quite uncharacteristically for a UN Agency, the six (6) Regional Offices of WHO have a remarkable amount of autonomy. Each Regional Office is headed by a Regional Director (RD), who is elected by the Regional Committee for that Region, for a once-renewable five-year term. The name of the RD-elect is then transmitted to the WHO Executive Board, at the headquarters in
The Regional Committee of WHO for each region consists of all the Health Department heads, in all the governments of the countries that constitute the Region. Aside from electing the Regional Director, the Regional Committee is also in charge of setting the guidelines for the implementation of all the Health and other policies adopted by the World Health Assembly, within their region. The Regional Committee also serves as a progress review board for the actions of WHO within the Region.
The Regional Director is effectively the head of the WHO for their particular region. The RD manages and/or supervises a staff of health and other experts, at the regional headquarters and in specialised centres. The RD is also the direct supervising authority — concomitantly with the WHO Director General — of all the heads of WHO country offices within their region, known as WHO Representatives.
Country Offices
The World Health Organization operates 147 country and liaison offices, in all its regions. The presence of a country office is generally motivated by a need, stated by the member country. There will generally be one WHO country office in the capital, occasionally with antenna-offices in the provinces or sub-regions of that country.
The country office is headed by a WHO Representative (WR), who is a trained physician, not a national of that country, and who holds ranks, and is due privileges and immunities, similar to those of a Head of Diplomatic Mission or a diplomatic Ambassador. In most countries, the WR (like Representatives of other UN agencies) is de facto and/or de jure treated like an Ambassador – the distinction here being that instead of being an Ambassador of one sovereign country to another, the WR is a senior UN civil servant, who serves as the “Ambassador” of WHO to the country where they are accredited. Hence the slightly less glamorous title of Representative, or Resident Representative.
The country office consists of the WR, and several health and other experts, both foreign and local, as well as the necessary support staff. The main functions of WHO country offices include being the primary adviser of that country’s government in matters of health and pharmaceutical policies.
International liaison offices serve largely the same purpose as country offices, but generally on a smaller scale. These are often found in countries that want WHO presence and cooperation, but do not have the major health system flaws that require the presence of a full-blown country office. Liaison offices are headed by a liaison officer, who is a national from that particular country, without diplomatic immunity.
Directors-General of WHO
The late Lee Jong-wook, past Director-General of the World Health Organization
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1948–1953 |
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1953–1973 |
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1973–1988 |
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1988–1998 |
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1998–2003 |
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2003–2006 (died on May 22) |
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2006 |
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January 4, 2007– |
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in
VIDEO
The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by all 61 countries of the United Nations by 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office International d’Hygiène Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its creation, WHO has been responsible for playing a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, in particular, HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis; the mitigation of the effects of non-communicable diseases; sexual and reproductive health, development, and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance abuse; and drive the development of reporting, publications, and networking. WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, a leading international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey, and World Health Day (7th-April of every Year).
Its links with the International Atomic Energy Agency and distribution of contraception have both proved controversial, as have guidelines on healthy eating and the 2009 flu pandemic.
History
Establishment
The League of Nations Health Organization was established following the First World War inside the
In February 1946, the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations helped draft the constitution of the new body. The use of the word “world”, rather than “international”, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by all 61 countries of the United Nations by 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million (then GBP£1,250,000) for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assembly’s first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO, having served as Executive Secretary during the planning stages. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing.
Operational history
Three former directors of the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980
WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex in 1947, and by
In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the
In 1998, WHO’s Director General highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality, raised life expectancy and reduced rates of “scourges” such as smallpox and polio on the fiftieth anniversary of WHO’s founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. Cholera and malaria have remained problems since WHO’s founding, although in decline for a large part of that period. In the twenty-first century, the Stop TB Partnership was created in 2000, along with the UN’s formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The Measles initiative was formed in 2001, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by
Current projects
Overall focus
The WHO’s constitution states that its objective “is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health”.
WHO identifies its role as one of six main objectives:
1. providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed;
2. shaping the research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation and dissemination of valuable knowledge;
3. setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation;
4. articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options;
5. providing technical support, catalyzing change, and building sustainable institutional capacity; and
6. monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends.
The 2012–2013 budget further identified thirteen areas among which funding was distributed.
Programmes and projects
1. New WHO Collaborating Center
The Biologics and Genetic Therapies Directorate of Health
Vaccine vials (IVB)
WHO Regulatory Standards for Vaccines and Biologicals
Established in 1947, the Expert Committee on Biological Standardization (ECBS) has overall responsibility for this area of work.
Standards developed through the ECBS relate to the production and quality control of safe and effective products. They provide guidance for national regulatory authorities and manufacturers and serve as the standard for acceptability of vaccines for supply to countries through international agencies (terms prequalification). Biological standards are also established by the Committee and provide the basis for the laboratory comparison of vaccines worldwide.
2. World Cancer Day
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“Together it is possible”
Each year on 4 February, World Cancer Day, WHO and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) support the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) to promote ways to ease the global burden of cancer.
“Together it is possible” is the 2012 theme for World Cancer Day, reinforcing that it is only by every person, organization, and government individually doing their part that the world will be able to reduce premature deaths from cancer and other noncommunicable diseases.
Preventing cancer, improving treatment and raising quality of life for cancer patients are recurring themes. This year, WHO and IARC will focus on screening and vaccination.
WHO and IARC promote screening and vaccination
Increased access to cost-effective vaccinations to prevent infections associated with cancers as well as the availability of cost-effective cancer-screening programmes for everyone can help to reduce cancer mortality.
Cost-effective vaccination prevents infections
Vaccination is available against cervical cancer, caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV) and liver cancer caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV).
Cervical cancer
Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women worldwide and over 500 000 new cases are diagnosed every year. HPV vaccines are recommended for use in girls aged 9 to 13 years old and can prevent infection with HPV types 16 and 18, which are together responsible for approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases globally
Liver cancer
Liver cancer killed 700 000 people in 2008. Together, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) account for 78% of liver cancer cases. A vaccine against hepatitis B has been available since 1982 and was the first vaccine against a major human cancer.
Early diagnosis reduces cancer mortality
Cancer mortality can also be reduced if cases are detected and treated early through early diagnosis and screening programmes. Early diagnosis is promoted by educating the public about early signs and symptoms of cancers. This is particularly relevant in low-resource settings where the majority of patients are diagnosed and treated in very late stages. Screening programmes use tests across a healthy population to detect signs for cancer or pre-cancer and allow to promptly refer affected persons for diagnosis and treatment. Effective screening programmes are for example available for breast cancer and for cervical cancer.
3. HIV/AIDS
In December, a WHO-convened meeting reviewed evidence on HIV treatment for adults, pregnant women and children. Participants included more than 100 clinical experts, implementers and community representatives from around the world. They based their discussions on more than 40 systematic reviews commissioned by WHO in 2012, modeling of costs and effectiveness, and surveys among the community and implementers.
Experts strove to simplify HIV treatment approaches, harmonize them across age groups, and to identify best ways for equitable access to HIV treatment and prevention.
The meeting resulted in a set of draft recommendations on ARV use which will be further refined in collaboration with the expert groups over the coming months. In April 2013 the full set of recommendations will be considered by the WHO Guidelines Review Committee. Release of the “Guideline on using ARVs for Treatment and Prevention of HIV Infection” is planned for June 2013
Communicable diseases
Two of those thirteen areas related to communicable diseases: the first, to reduce the “health, social and economic burden” of communicable diseases in general; the second to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis in particular.
In terms of HIV/AIDS, WHO works within the UNAIDS network and considers it important that it works in alignment with UNAIDS objectives and strategies. It also strives to involve sections of society other than health to help deal with the economic and social effects of the disease. In line with UNAIDS, WHO has set itself the interim task between 2009 and 2015 of reducing the number of those aged 15–24 years who are infected by 50%; reducing new HIV infections in children by 90%; and reducing HIV-related deaths by 25%.
Although WHO dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign in the 1970s as too ambitious, it retains a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO’s Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. WHO is to report, likely in 2015, as to whether RTS,S/AS01, currently in research, is a viable malaria vaccine. For the time being, insecticide-treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children.
WHO’s help has contributed to a 40% fall in the number of deaths from tuberculosis between 1990 and 2010, and since 2005, it claims that over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardising treatment, monitoring of the spread and impact of tuberculosis and stabilising the drug supply. It has also recognised the vulnerability of victims of HIV/AIDS to tuberculosis.
WHO aims to eradicate polio. It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since the Global Polio Eradication Initiative was launched in 1988, which partnered WHO with Rotary International, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), as well as smaller organizations. It works to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared “polio-free”.
Non-communicable diseases
Another of the thirteen areas is aimed at the prevention and reduction of “disease, disability and premature from chronic noncommunicable diseases, mental disorders, violence and injuries and visual impairment”.
Life and lifestyle
WHO also works to “reduce morbidity and mortality and improve health during key stages of life, including pregnancy, childbirth, the neonatal period, childhood and adolescence, and improve sexual and reproductive health and promote active and healthy aging for all individuals”.
It also tries to prevent or reduce risk factors for”health conditions associated with use of tobacco, alcohol, drugs and other psychoactive substances, unhealthy diets and physical inactivity and unsafe sex”.
WHO works to improve nutrition, food safety and food security and to ensure this has a positive effect on public health and sustainable development.
Emergency work
When any sort of disaster or emergency occurs, it is WHO’s stated objective to reduce any consequences it may have on world health and its social and economic implications.
Health policy
WHO also addresses government health policy with two aims: firstly, “to address the underlying social and economic determinants of health through policies and programmes that enhance health equity and integrate pro-poor, genderresponsive, and human rights-based approaches” and secondly “to promote a healthier environment, intensify primary prevention and influence public policies in all sectors so as to address the root causes of environmental threats to health”.
In terms of health services, WHO looks to improve “governance, financing, staffing and management” and the availability and quality of evidence and research to guide policy making. It also strives to “ensure improved access, quality and use of medical products and technologies”.
Governance and support
The remaining two of WHO’s thirteen identified policy areas relate to the role of WHO itself: firstly, “to provide leadership, strengthen governance and foster partnership and collaboration with countries, the United Nations system, and other stakeholders in order to fulfill the mandate of WHO in advancing the global health agenda” and secondly “to develop and sustain WHO as a flexible, learning organization, enabling it to carry out its mandate more efficiently and effectively”.
Other work
The WHO and the World Bank constitute the core team responsible for administering the International Health Partnership (IHP+). The IHP+ is a group of partner governments, development agencies, civil society and others committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector.
In addition, the WHO has also promoted road safety. Each year, the organization marks World Health Day focusing on a specific health promotion topic, timed to match the anniversary of WHO’s founding. Recent themes have been drug resistance (2011) and ageing (2012). As part of the United Nations, the World Health Organization supports work towards the Millennium Development Goals. Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, three – reducing child mortality by two-thirds, to reduce maternal deaths by three-quarters, and to halt and begin to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS – relate directly to WHO’s scope; the other five inter-relate and have an impact on world health.
Data handling and publications
The organization relies on contributions from renowned scientists and professionals to inform its work, such as the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization, the WHO Expert Committee on Leprosy, and the WHO Study Group on Interprofessional Education & Collaborative Practice. WHO has also worked on global initiatives in surgery, including emergency and essential surgical care, trauma care, and safe surgery. The WHO Surgical Safety Checklist is in current use worldwide in the effort to improve patient safety.
WHO runs the
The organization develops and promotes the use of evidence-based tools, norms and standards to support member states to inform health policy options. It oversees the implementation of the International Health Regulations, and publishes a series of medical classifications; of these, three are overreaching “reference classifications”: the International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD), the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Health Interventions (ICHI). Other international policy frameworks produced by WHO include the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (adopted in 1981), Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (adopted in 2003) and the Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel (adopted in 2010). The WHO regularly publishes a World Health Report, its leading publication, including an expert assessment of a specific global health topic. Other publications of WHO include the Bulletin of the World Health Organization, the Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (overseen by EMRO), the Human Resources for Health (published in collaboration with BioMed Central), and the Pan American Journal of Public Health (overseen by PAHO/AMRO).
Structure
The World Health Organization is a member of the United Nations Development Group.
Membership
Countries by World Health Organization membership status
As of 2012, the WHO has 194 member states, including the Cook Islands and
WHO Member States appoint delegations to the World Health Assembly, WHO’s supreme decision-making body. All UN Member States are eligible for WHO membership, and, according to the WHO web site, “other countries may be admitted as members when their application has been approved by a simple majority vote of the World Health Assembly”.
In addition, the UN observer organizations International Committee of the Red Cross and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies have entered into “official relations” with WHO and are invited as observers. In the World Health Assembly they are seated along the other NGOs.
Assembly and Executive Board
WHO Headquarters in
The World Health Assembly is the legislative and supreme body of WHO. Based in
Regional offices
Regional offices and regions of the WHO:
Africa; HQ:
Europe; HQ:
Eastern Med.; HQ:
South East Asia; HQ:
Western Pacific; HQ:
The regional divisions of WHO were created between 1949 and 1952, and are based on article 44 of WHO’s constitution, which allowed the WHA to “establish a [single] regional organization to meet the special needs of [each defined] area”. Many decisions are made at regional level, including importance discussions over WHO’s budget, and in deciding the members of the next assembly, which are designated by the regions.
Each region has a Regional Committee, which generally meets once a year, normally in the autumn. Representatives attend from each member or associative member in each region, including those states that are not fully recognised. For example,
Each Regional Committee of the WHO consists of all the Health Department heads, in all the governments of the countries that constitute the Region. Aside from electing the Regional Director, the Regional Committee is also in charge of setting the guidelines for the implementation, within the region, of the health and other policies adopted by the World Health Assembly. The Regional Committee also serves as a progress review board for the actions of WHO within the Region.
The Regional Director is effectively the head of WHO for his or her Region. The RD manages and/or supervises a staff of health and other experts at the regional offices and in specialized centers. The RD is also the direct supervising authority—concomitantly with the WHO Director-General—of all the heads of WHO country offices, known as WHO Representatives, within the Region.
People
The head of the organization is the Director-General, appointed by the World Health Assembly. The current Director-General is Margaret Chan, who was appointed on 9 November 2006. On 18 January 2012, Chan was nominated by the WHO’s Executive Board for a second term. If confirmed by the World Health Assembly in May 2012, Dr Chan will remain Director-General until the end of June 2017.
WHO employs 8,500 people in 147 countries. In support of the principle of a tobacco-free work environment the WHO does not recruit cigarette smokers. The organization has previously instigated the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003.
The WHO operates “Goodwill Ambassadors”, members of the arts, sport or other fields of public life aimed at drawing attention to WHO’s initiatives and projects. There are currently five Goodwill Ambassadors (Jet Li, Nancy Brinker, Peng Liyuan, Yohei Sasakawa and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra) and a further ambassador associated with a partnership project (Craig David).
Country and liaison offices
The World Health Organization operates 147 country offices in all its regions. It also operates several liaison offices, including those with the European Union, United Nations and a single office covering the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. It also operates the International Agency for Research on Cancer in
The country office is headed by a WHO Representative (WR). As of 2010, the only WHO Representative outside Europe to be a national of that country was for the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (“
The country office consists of the WR, and several health and other experts, both foreign and local, as well as the necessary support staff. The main functions of WHO country offices include being the primary adviser of that country’s government in matters of health and pharmaceutical policies.
Financing and partnerships
The WHO is financed by contributions from member states and outside donors. As of 2012, the largest annual assessed contributions from member states came from the
In recent years, the WHO’s work has involved increasing collaboration with external bodies. As of
Controversies
IAEA – Agreement WHA 12–40
Demonstration on Chernobyl disaster day near WHO in Geneva
In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The agreement states that the WHO recognises the IAEA as having responsibility for peaceful nuclear energy without prejudice to the roles of the WHO of promoting health. However, the following paragraph adds: “whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which the other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement”. The nature of this statement has led some pressure groups and activists (including Women in Europe for a Common Future) to believe that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and the continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima. They believe WHO must regain what they see as “independence”.
Roman Catholic Church and AIDS
In 2003, the WHO denounced the Roman Curia’s health department’s opposition to the use of condoms, saying: “These incorrect statements about condoms and HIV are dangerous when we are facing a global pandemic which has already killed more than 20 million people, and currently affects at least 42 million.” As of 2009, the Catholic Church remains opposed to increasing the use of contraception to combat HIV/AIDS. At the time, the World Health Assembly President,
Intermittent preventive therapy
The aggressive support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for intermittent preventive therapy of malaria which included the commissioning of a report from the Institute of Medicine triggered a memo from the former WHO malaria chief Akira Kochi.
Diet and sugar intake
Some of the research undertaken or supported by WHO to determine how people’s lifestyles and environments are influencing whether they live in better or worse health can be controversial, as illustrated by a 2003 joint WHO/FAO report outrition and the prevention of chronic non-communicable disease, which recommended that sugar should form no more than 10% of a healthy diet. This report led to lobbying by the sugar industry against the recommendation, to which the WHO/FAO responded by including in the report the statement “The Consultation recognized that a population goal for free sugars of less than 10% of total energy is controversial”, but also stood by its recommendation based upon its own analysis of scientific studies.
2009 influenza pandemic
In 2007, the WHO organized work on pandemic influenza vaccine development through clinical trials in collaboration with many experts. A pandemic involving the H1N1 influenza virus was declared by Director-General Margaret Chan in April 2009.
By the post-pandemic period critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger, spreading “fear and confusion” rather than “immediate information”. Industry experts countered that the 2009 pandemic had led to “unprecedented collaboration between global health authorities, scientists and manufacturers, resulting in the most comprehensive pandemic response ever undertaken, with a number of vaccines approved for use three months after the pandemic declaration. This response was only possible because of the extensive preparations undertaken in during the last decade”
Pronouns
Definition
Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun’s antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. For instance, we are bewildered by writers who claim something like
· They say that eating beef is bad for you.
They is a pronoun referring to someone, but who are they? Cows? whom do they represent? Sloppy use of pronouns is unfair.
Not all pronouns will refer to an antecedent, however.
· Everyone here earns over a thousand dollars a day.
The word “everyone” has no antecedent.
The problem of agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent and between a pronoun and its verb is treated in another section on Pronoun-Antecedent Consistency. The quizzes on pronoun usage are also listed at the end of that section.
This section will list and briefly describe the several kinds of pronouns.
Personal Pronouns
Unlike English nouns, which usually do not change form except for the addition of an -s ending to create the plural or the apostrophe + s to create the possessive, personal pronouns (which stand for persons or things) change form according to their various uses within a sentence. Thus I is used as the subject of a sentence (I am happy.), me is used as an object in various ways (He hit me. He gave me a book. Do this for me.), and my is used as the possessive form (That’s my car.) The same is true of the other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plural we, you, and they. These forms are called cases. An easily printable chart is available that shows the various Cases of the Personal Pronouns.
Personal pronouns can also be characterized or distinguished by person. First person refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s) (“I” for singular, “we” for plural). Second person refers to the person or people being spoken or written to (“you” for both singular and plural). Third person refers to the person or people being spoken or written about (“he,” “she,” and “it” for singular, “they” for plural). The person of a pronoun is also demonstrated in the chart Cases of the Personal Pronouns. As you will see there, each person can change form, reflecting its use within a sentence. Thus, “I” becomes “me” when used as an object (“She left me”) and “my” when used in its possessive role (That’s my car”); “they” becomes “them” in object form (“I like them”) and “their” in possessive (“That’s just their way”).
When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction to another noun or pronoun, its case does not change. We would write “I am taking a course in Asian history”; if Talitha is also taking that course, we would write “Talitha and I are taking a course in Asian history.” (Notice that Talitha gets listed before “I” does. This is one of the few ways in which English is a “polite” language.) The same is true when the object form is called for: “Professor Vendetti gave all her books to me“; if Talitha also received some books, we’d write “Professor Vendetti gave all her books to Talitha and me.”
When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.
· We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.
· The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation.
With the second person, we don’t really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, “you”:
· “You students are demanding too much.”
· “We expect you students to behave like adults.”
Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs.
· Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful.
· This new car is mine.
· Mine is newer than yours.
Demonstrative Pronouns
The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners.
As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.
· That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
· I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
· Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)
As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners:
· These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious.
· Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better.
· This [book in my hand] is well written;
· that [book that I’m pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash.
A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns:
· You’re going to wear these?
· This is the best you can do?
Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence.
When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.
· This is my father.
· That is my book.
In other roles, however, the reference of demonstratives is non-personal. In other words, when referring to students, say, we could write “Those were loitering near the entrance during the fire drill” (as long as it is perfectly clear in context what “those” refers to). But we would not write “The principal suspended those for two days”; instead, we would have to use “those” as a determiner and write “The principal suspended those students for two days.”
Relative Pronouns
The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. Generally, we use “which” to introduce clauses that are parenthetical iature (i.e., that can be removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a “which clause” is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. “That clauses,” on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. The expanded form of the relative pronouns — whoever, whomever, whatever — are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called “indefinite”:
· The coach will select whomever he pleases.
· He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
· Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.
What is often an indefinite relative pronoun:
· She will tell you what you need to know.
Indefinite Pronouns
The indefinite pronouns (everybody/anybody/somebody/all/each/every/some/none/one) do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns (Everyone is wondering if any is left.)
One of the chief difficulties we have with the indefinite pronouns lies in the fact that “everybody” feels as though it refers to more than one person, but it takes a singular verb. (Everybody is accounted for.) If you think of this word as meaning “every single body,” the confusion usually disappears. The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural, depending on its context. None is nearly always plural (meaning “not any”) except when something else in the sentence makes us regard it as a singular (meaning “not one”), as in “None of the food is fresh.” Some can be singular or plural depending on whether it refers to something countable or noncountable.
· Few will be chosen; fewer will finish.
· Little is expected.
Intensive Pronouns
The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don’t know the answer.) It is possible (but rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don’t believe a word he says.)
Reflexive Pronouns
The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can “reflect.” In other words, the sentence “Please hand that book to myself” would be incorrect because there is no “I” in that sentence for the “myself” to reflect to (and we would use “me” instead of “myself”). A sentence such as “I gave that book to myself for Christmas” might be silly, but it would be correct.
Be alert to a tendency to use reflexive pronoun forms (ending in -self) where they are neither appropriate nor necessary. The inappropriate reflexive form has a wonderful name: the untriggered reflexive. “Myself” tends to sound weightier, more formal, than little ol’ me or I, so it has a way of sneaking into sentences where it doesn’t belong.
· Bob and myself I are responsible for this decision.
· These decisions will be made by myself me.
· If you have any questions, please contact myself me or Bob Jones.
When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take either the first person
· Juanita, Carlos, and I have deceived ourselves into believing in my uncle.
or, when there is no first person, the second person:
· You and Carlos have deceived yourselves.
The indefinite pronoun (see above) one has its own reflexive form (“One must have faith in oneself.”), but the other indefinite pronouns use either himself or themselves as reflexives. (There is an entire page on the pronoun one.) It is probably better to pluralize and avoid the clumsy himself or herself construction.
· No one here can blame himself or herself.
· The people here cannot blame themselves.
Interrogative Pronouns
The interrogative pronouns (who/which/what) introduce questions. (What is that? Who will help me? Which do you prefer?) Which is generally used with more specific reference than what. If we’re taking a quiz and I ask “Which questions give you the most trouble?”, I am referring to specific questions on that quiz. If I ask “What questions give you most trouble”? I could be asking what kind of questions on that quiz (or what kind of question, generically, in general) gives you trouble. Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:
· We know who is guilty of this crime.
· I already told the detective what I know about it.
Reciprocal Pronouns
The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other).
· My mother and I give each other a hard time.
If more than two people are involved (let’s say a whole book club), we would say that they gave one another books. This rule (if it is one) should be applied circumspectly. It’s quite possible for the exchange of books within this book club, for example, to be between individuals, making “each other” just as appropriate as “one another.”
Reciprocal pronouns can also take possessive forms:
· They borrowed each other’s ideas.
· The scientists in this lab often use one another’s equipment.
Pronouns
General information about pronouns,
possessives and determiners
4.1 Form of personal/reflexive pronouns and possessives
personal pronouns: possessives: reflexive
subject object adjectives pronouns pronouns
singular: / me my mine myself
you you your yours yourself
he him his his himself
she her her hers herself
it it its – itself
one one (one’s) – oneself
plural: we us our ours ourselves
you you your yours yourselves
they them their theirs themselves
– demonstrative adjectives and pronouns: this’that’these-‘those [> 4.32].
– indefinite pronouns: some, any and their compounds [> 4.37].
– relative pronouns: who whom, that, which [> 1.27].
– possessive adjectives {my, etc. [> 4.19]) function as determiners rather than
pronouns, but they are treated together with possessive pronouns (mine, etc.)
because they are related in form and meaning.
4.2 The difference between pronouns and determiners
4.2.1 Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of a noun or a noun
phrase, as the word itself tells us: pro-noun. We do not normally put a
noun after a pronoun except in special combinations such as you
students she-bear, etc. We use pronouns like he she, it and they
when we already know who or what is referred to. This saves us from
having to repeat the name or the noun whenever we need to refer to it:
John arrived late last night. He had had a tiring journey
I wrote to Kay and told her what had happened.
However, we normally use I/me, you and we/us for direct reference to
ourselves or the person(s) addressed and not in place of nouns.
4.2.2 Determiners [> 3.1] compared with pronouns
Determiners are always followed by a noun. Words such as some [>
5.10] and this [> 4.32] followed by a noun function as determiners.
When they stand on their own, they function as pronouns:
/ want some milk, (some + noun, functioning as determiner)
/ want some (some on its own, functioning as pronoun)
/ want this book (this + noun, functioning as determiner)
/ want this (this on its own, functioning as pronoun)
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns
4.3 Form of personal pronouns
subject [> 1.4]: / you he she it one we you they
object [> 1.9]: me you him her it one us you them
4.4 Notes on the form of personal pronouns
1 Though these words are called personal pronouns, they do not
refer only to people. For example:
Your breakfast is ready It is on the table
We call them ‘personal pronouns’ because they refer to grammatical
‘persons’ (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and can be grouped like this:
1st person: / ,we
2nd person: you
3rd person: he. she, it, one. they
2 Most European languages have two forms of you, an informal one for
family, close friends, children, etc. and a formal one for strangers,
superiors, etc. In English, we do not make this distinction: the one
word, you, is used for everybody. There aren’t different singular and
plural forms of you (except for yourself yourselves).
3 Note that the singular subject pronouns he she and it have the same
plural form: they; and the singular object pronouns him ner and .’
have the same plural form: them.
4 The choice of pronoun depends on the noun that is being replaced
[> 2.39-40, 4.2.1]. Pronouns (except for you) agree with the nouns
they replace in number (showing us whether they are referring to
singular or plural). Some agree in gender (showing us whether they
are referring to masculine, feminine or neuter):
John is here He (replacing John) can t stay long
The windows are dirty I must wash them (replacing windows)
If you see Joanna please give her (replacing Joanna) this message
5 We do not normally use a noun and a pronoun together:
My friend invited me to dinner (Not *My friend, he…*)
I parked my car outside (Not *My car, I parked it…*)
4.5 Subject pronouns
Subject pronouns nearly always come before a verb in statements.
They are used when the person or thing referred to can be identified
by both speaker and hearer:
John didn ‘t find us in so he left a message
In English, the subject of a sentence must be expressed. If it is not
directly expressed, its presence is strongly implied [> 4.5.8]. This can
be contrasted with some other European languages, where the use of
subject pronouns can be optional.
4-5.1 The first person singular: ‘I’
The speaker or writer uses / when referring to himself or herself. This
is the only personal pronoun which is always spelt with a capital letter.
4 Pronouns
Note that / is written as a capital letter whether it’s at the beginning of
a sentence or not
/ think therefore I am John told me I needn t wait
In polite usage it is usual to avoid mentioning yourself first
Jane and I have already eaten (in preference to / and Jane)
4.5.2 The second person singular and plural: ‘you’
We use this when we address another person, or two or more people
Are you ready Jill9 Or Are you (both/all) ready?
Fox you in the sense of ‘anyone in general’ [> 4.9]
4.5.3 The third person singular masculine: ‘he’ [compare > 4.8]
He stands for a male person who has already been mentioned
Don t expect David to accept your invitation He s far too busy
He is used in certain proverbial expressions to mean ‘anyone’
He who hesitates is lost
4.5.4 The third person singular feminine: ‘she’ [compare > 4.8]
She stands for a female person who has already been mentioned
Ask Jennifer if she II be home in time for dinner
4.5.5 The third person singular neuter: ‘it’ [compare > 4.8]
It can refer to a thing, a quality, an event, a place, etc
That vase is valuable It s more than 200 years old
Loyalty must be earned It can t be bought
I love swimming It keeps me fit
Last night I ran out of petrol It really taught me a lesson
You should visit Bath It s not far from Bristol
We can use it to identify people
There s a knock at the door Who is it? –It’s the postman
Who s that? -Its our new next-door neighbour Mrs Smith
Compare this request for information (not identification)
Who s Mrs Smith9 – She s our new next-door neighbour
We also use it when we don’t know the sex of a baby or child
Its a lovely baby Is it a boy or a girl?
We refer to an animal as it when the sex is not known or not worth
identifying
/ m fed up with that dog of yours It never stops barking
4.5.6 The first person plural: ‘we’ (two or more people)
We can include the listener or not
Let’s go shall we9 (including the listener)
We re staying here What about you? (not including the listener)
We is often used to mean ‘anyone/everyone’, e g iewspapers
We should applaud the government s efforts to create more jobs
We is used in the same way in general statements
We all fear the unknown
4.5.7 The third person plural: ‘they’ (two or more people, things, etc.)
They can stand for persons, animals or things already mentioned
John and Susan phoned They re coming round this evening
Look at those cows! They never stop eating
Our curtains look dirty They need a good wash
Personal pronouns
They can be used in general statements to mean ‘people’
They say (or People say) oil prices will be going up soon
They is also commonly used to refer to ‘the authorities’
They re putting up oil prices again soon
They is also used to mean ‘someone else, not me’
If you ask at Reception they will tell you where it is
For they in place of anyone, etc [> 4.40]
For the use of we you and they with both and all [> 5.19-20]
4.5.8 Omission of subject in abbreviated statements
In everyday speech, we sometimes omit subject pronouns
Found this in the garden Know who it belongs to?
(= / found this in the garden Do you know who it belongs to?)
4.6 Object pronouns
Object pronouns replace nouns in object positions They can be
– direct objects [> 1.9] Have you met Marilyn? I ve never met her
– indirect objects [> 1.9] If you see Jim give him my regards
– objects of prepositions [> 8.1] / really feel sorry for them
In polite usage it is usual to avoid mentioning yourself first
They were met by John and me (in preference to me and John)
We often use both and all with you to avoid ambiguity (since you can
refer to both or all) [> 5.19-20]
Good luck to you both/all
Us is often used very informally in place of me, particularly after the
imperatives of verbs like give and pass
Give us a hand with this trunk will you?
In everyday speech, it is normal for unstressed him her and them to
be pronounced im er and em
Give ‘im the money Give ‘er a kiss Give ’em all you ve got
4.7 Subject or object pronoun?
Here are a few exceptions to the rules for using subject and object
pronouns outlined in.4 5 and 4.6
4.7.1 Object pronouns after ‘be’
Object pronouns are normally used in preference to subject pronouns
after be in everyday speech
Who is it? -Its me/him/her/us/them
4.7.2 Object pronouns (especially ‘me’) as subjects [> 13.29.3, 13.42n2]
Subject pronouns (/ she, etc ) are not normally used by themselves or
in short answers with not Object pronouns are used instead
Who wants a ride on my bike? – Me/Not me!
An object pronoun can also occur as the subject of a particular kind
of exclamatory question for stress or emphasis
You can tell him – Me tell him7 Not likely!
Me occurs very informally in ‘cleft sentences’ [> 4.14]
Don t blame Harry It was me who opened the letter
where careful usage would require
It was I who (Or / was the one who )
75
4 Pronouns
4.7.3 Object or subject pronouns after comparatives with ‘as’ and ‘than’
Object pronouns are commonly used in statements like the following
when as and than function as prepositions:
She’s as old as me/as him You’re taller than me/than her
However, subject pronouns are used if as or than function as
conjunctions, i.e. when they are followed by a clause [> 1.53, 6.27.1]:
She’s as old as I am/he is You’re taller than I am/she is
4.7′.4 Object pronouns in exclamations
Object pronouns often occur in exclamations like the following:
He’s got to repay the money – Poor him! (= Isn’t he unlucky!)
She’s been promoted – Lucky her1 (= Isn’t she lucky!)
4.8 Gender in relation to animals, things and countries
Animals are usually referred to with it as if they were things [> 4.5.5].
We only use he, she, who, etc. when there is a reason for doing so.
For example, animals may be ‘personalized’ as pets, as farm animals,
or in folk tales, and referred to as male or female:
What kind of dog is Spot? He’s a mongrel.
Other ‘lower animals’ and insects are only referred to as he, she, etc.
when we describe their biological roles:
The cuckoo lays her eggs in other birds’ nests
or, sometimes, when we regard their activities with interest:
Look at that frog! Look at the way he jumps!
Ships, cars, motorbikes and other machines are sometimes referred to
as if they were feminine when the reference is affectionate:
My cars not fast, but she does
Countries can also be ‘personified’ as feminine: e.g.
In 1941
‘One’
4.9 General statements with ‘one’ and ‘you’
One, used as an indefinite pronoun meaning ‘everyone/anyone’
[> 4.37], is sometimes used (formally) in general statements:
World trade is improving, but one cannot expect miracles
In everyday speech, the informal you is preferred:
Can you buy refrigerators in
One may be used to replace /, but this tends to sound pompous:
One likes to have one’s breakfast in bed now and again.
One can be linked with one’s, just as you can be linked with your-
However, constructions with one, one’s and oneself are often awkward
because of the repetition of one-
One should do one’s best at all times
(For: You should do your best at all times )
One shouldn ‘t be too hard on oneself
(For: You shouldn’t be too hard on yourself)
In AmE one’s/oneself can be replaced by his/her, himself/herself-
One should give himself/herself a holiday from time to time
For the use of the passive in place of one [> 12.4.3].
‘One’
4.10 ‘One’ as a ‘prop word’ after a determiner [compare > 4.16, 5.30]
One and ones are frequently used as substitution words after a
determiner (that one, etc). One(s) is sometimes called a prop word
because it ‘supports’ the meaning of the noun it replaces. One is used
to replace a countable noun in the singular and ones to replace a
plural countable. One and ones can refer to people or things and we
use them when we wish to avoid repeating a noun:
Things: Have you seen this dictionary? (singular countable)
– Is that the one that was published recently?
People: Have you met our Germaeighbours? (plural countable)
– Are they the ones who moved here recently?
We cannot use one when referring to an uncountable noun:
Don’t use powdered milk Use this fresh (milk) (Not *one*)
One and ones as prop words are most commonly used when we are
identifying people and things, particularly after Which?, this/that, and
adjectives [compare > 6.6]. One and ones are optional after Which?,
after this/that and after superlatives. Ones can be used after these’
those, though it is usually avoided:
Which (one) would you like? – This (one) or that (one)?
Which (ones) would you like? – These (ones) or those (ones)?
Which (one/ones) do you want? – The cheapest (one/ones)
We normally use one/ones after the positive form of adjectives:
Which (one/ones) do you want? – The large one/ones
After colour adjectives, one and ones may be omitted in answers:
Which (one/ones) do you want? – I’ll have the red (one/ones)
In statements, requests, etc. one and ones must be used after
this/that/these/those + adjective:
/’// try on a few of these shirts Please pass me that white one
One and ones can be used in specific references after the definite
article (the one/the ones), demonstratives (this one) or with defining
phrases (the one/ones with pink ribbons) to identify or to indicate the
location of people and things:
Which woman do you mean? – The one in the green dress
Which boys rang the doorbell? – The ones in the street
Which shirt(s) do you want? – The one(s) in the window
4.11 Reference to two: ‘the one…the other’
We can refer to two people or things (or to two groups) through the
following combinations: (the) one the other, the first the second, or
more formally, the former the latter
You shouldn ‘t get Botticelli and Bocchenni mixed up
(The) one the other
The first is a painter and the second is a composer
The former the latter
The former and the lattercan have a plural verb:
Beans and peas are good value The former/The latter are cheap
REVISION OF NENSES (ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE)
V-1
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. We (to discuss) a new film yesterday.
2. Some pictures (to show) to a group of people at the moment.
3. She always (to write) letters to her parents.
4. He (to make) a report at 7 p.m. yesterday.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-2
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. They (to publish) an interesting article in this journal some months ago.
2. I (to translate) the article when somebody knocked at the door.
3. These sentences (to translate) at the lesson tomorrow.
4. The letter (to type) at the moment.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-3
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. The article usually (to translate) by them without dictionary.
2. These questions (to discuss) at the meeting now.
3. The manager (to answer) your questions next Monday.
4. My mother (to cook) dinner when I came.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-4
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. A new rule (to explain) at the lesson tomorrow.
2. Don’t enter the classroom. A student (to examine) there.
3. My father (to repair) the TV-set now.
4. The students (to make) a lot of mistakes in their last dictation.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-5
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. My mother (to clean) the room some hours ago.
2. A good film (to show) us when the teacher came into the room.
3. Mother always (to help) by Mary.
4. The professor (to examine) my friend now.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-6
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. They (to speak) English in Great Britain.
2. The cup (to break) by my son.
3. The article (to copy) by the students now.
4. They (to build) these houses when I arrived.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-7
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. The patient (to examine) by the doctor from 10 to 11 yesterday.
2. The teacher (to explain) the rule next week.
3. You father (to read) the newspaper at the moment.
4. These doctors always (to use) new methods of treatment.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-8
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. This document (to sign) tomorrow.
2. Your friend (to ask) by the teacher when the bell rang.
3. We (to discuss) these questions at the last meeting.
4. She (to water) the flowers now.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-9
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. We (to discuss) a new film when the teacher came.
2. Some pictures (to show) to a group of people yesterday.
3. She always (to write) letters to her parents.
4. He (to make) a report at the moment.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-10
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. The article (to translate) by them without dictionary at 5 p.m. yesterday.
2. These questions usually (to discuss) at the meeting.
3. The manager (to answer) your questions last month.
4. My mother (to cook) dinner now.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-11
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. A new rule (to explain) at the last English lesson.
2. Don’t enter the classroom. The teacher (to examine) the students there.
3. The TV-set (to repair) by my father now.
4. The students usually (to make) a lot of mistakes in their dictation.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-12
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. My mother (to clean) the room some hours ago.
2. A good film (to show) us in three weeks.
3. Mother (to help) by Mary at the moment.
4. The professor (to examine) my friend when we came into the classroom.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-13
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. English (to speak) in Great Britain.
2. The cup (to break) by my son when he was having tea.
3. The article (to copy) by the students from 10 to
4. They (to build) these houses at present.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-14
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. The patient (to examine) by the doctor at the moment.
2. The teacher always (to explain) the rule clearly.
3. Your father (to read) the newspaper from 10 to 11 yesterday.
4. New methods of treatment (to use) by these doctors next week.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
V-15
I. Rewrite the sentences and use the correct form of the verb given in brackets:
1. This document (to sign) at the last meeting.
2. Your friend (to ask) by the teacher now.
3. We (to discuss) these questions tomorrow.
4. She (to water) the flowers when the bell rang.
II. Transform the verb in these sentences from Active Voice into Passive Voice or vice versa.
4 Pronouns
‘It’
4.12 ‘It’ as an ’empty subject’
We often use it in sentences referring to time, the weather, temperature
or distance. When used in this way, it is sometimes called an empty
subject because it carries no real information. It is present because
every English sentence has to contain a subject and a verb [> 4.5]:
Time: It’s 8 o’clock It’s Tuesday It’s May 25th.
It’s time… [> 11.43]: It’s time (for us) to leave
Weather: It s hot It’s raining It rains a lot here
Temperature: It’s 37° centigrade/Celsius
Distance: It’s
The tides: It’s high tide at 11 44
Environment: It’s noisy/smoky in here
Present situation: Isn’t it awful1 Isn’t it a shame1
With since: It’s three years since we last met
With says: It says here there was a big fire in
With take [> 16.21]: It takes (us) half an hour to get to work
And note many expressions with it, e.g. it doesn’t matter, it’s no use,
(it as subject); I’ve had it; That does it? (it as object).
4.13 ‘It’as a’preparatory subject’
Sometimes sentences beginning with it continue with an infinitive, a gerund or a noun clause [> 1.23.1,16.27.2, 16.47]. It is possible to begin such sentences with an infinitive or gerund, but we generally prefer it:
Its pleasant to lie in the sun (To lie in the sun is pleasant )
It’s pleasant lying in the sun (Lying in the sun is pleasant )
It’s a shame that Tom isn’t here (That Tom isn’t here is a shame )
It doesn’t matter when we arrive (When we arrive doesn’t matter )
The true subject in the above sentences with it is the infinitive, gerund
or noun clause and it is preparatory to the subject.
It as a preparatory subject often combines with:
adjectives: e.g. difficult, easy, important, vital [> App 44]:
It’s easy (for me) to make mistakes.
nouns: e.g. fun, a pity, a pleasure, a shame [> 1.23.1, 16.34]:
It’s a pleasure (for us) to be here
verbs: e.g. appear, happen, look, seem [> 1.47.2, 10.25]:
It appears that he forgot to sign the letter
It now looks certain that the fire was caused by a
cigarette end
4.14 The use of ‘it’ in ‘cleft sentences’
We can begin sentences with It is or It was + subject + that or
who(m), if we wish to emphasize the word or phrase that follows.
Sentences formed in this way are called cleft sentences because a
simple sentence is split up (cleft) into two clauses using the
it-construction:
‘It’
Freda phoned Jack last night (simple sentence, no emphasis)
It was Freda who phoned Jack last night (and not Rita)
It was Jack who(m) Freda phoned last night (and not Richard)
It was last night that Freda phoned (and not this morning)
4.15 ‘It’ as a ‘preparatory object’ [compare > 1.14]
It + adjective can be used after verbs like find [> 16.22] to prepare us
for the infinitive or the that-clause that follows:
+ infinitive: Tim finds it difficult to concentrate
+ f/iaf-clause: Jan thinks it funny that I’ve taken up yoga
It can also be used after verbs like enjoy, hate, like, love
I don’t like it when you shout at me.
4.16 Specific ‘it/they’, etc. and non-specific ‘one/some’, etc.
4.16.1 Obligatory subjects: ‘it’, ‘they’, ‘one’, ‘some’ (for things)
It and they are used as subjects if the reference is specific:
specific: Did the letter I’ve been expecting come?
– Yes, it came this morning (the + singular noun = it)
Did the letters I’ve been expecting come?
– Yes, they came this morning, (the + plural noun = they)
One and some, functioning on their own as pronouns, can be used as
subjects if the reference is non-specific:
non-specific: Did a letter come for me?
– Yes, one came/some came for you this morning
(a/an + singular noun = one)
Did any letters come for me9
– Yes, some came/one came for you this morning
(any/some + plural noun = some in a positive answer or
none in a negative answer)
16.2 Obligatory objects: ‘it’, ‘them’, ‘one’, ‘some’, ‘any’ (for things)
An object is obligatory after transitive verbs, such as enjoy or make,
and verbs which are being used transitively, such as play [> App 1].
It, them or a noun must be used as objects when the reference is
specific [> 4.16.1]:
What do you think of this cake?
– I like it/I don’t like it (Not */ like/don’t like*)
What do you think of these cakes?
– I like them/I don’t like them (Not */ like/don’t like*)
One must be used as an object when it stands for a/an + countable
noun (i.e. the reference is non-specific) [> 4.16.1]:
Have a biscuit – I’ve had one/I don’t want one thank you
Would you like a drink? – I’d love one thank you
Some and any [> 5 10] must be used as objects when there is a
non-specific reference to uncountable nouns and plural countables:
Have you got any sugar? Can you lend me some please9
Sorry, I haven’t got any (to spare).
Have you got any drawing-pins? Can I borrow some please9
– I’m afraid I haven’t got any (to spare)
4 Pronouns
4.17 ‘So’, not ‘it’ with certain verbs [compare > 1.23.5]
After verbs such as believe, expect, fear, guess (especially AmE- /
guess so), hope, imagine, presume, say, suppose, tell someone ‘think
(also after I’m afraid and It seems/appears), it is usual to follow with
so (never ,t) in affirmative responses, so that we do not repeat a whole
clause:
Is it true that Geoff has had a heart attack?
– / am afraid so/I believe so/ I think so It seems so
Iegative responses, not can be used directly after be afraid
believe, expect, fear guess (especially AmE: / guess not) hope
imagine, presume, suppose, think (and It seems/appears)-
Has Anne got into university?
– I am afraid not/I believe not/I think not It seems not
Alternative responses using not so are possible with believe expect
imagine, say, suppose and think :
I don’t believe so/ imagine so/ suppose so/ think so
So can also precede the subject in short responses-
– with verbs like believe, gather, hear, notice, see understand
The stock market share-index has risen sharply
– So I beheve/gather/hear/notice/see/understand
– with verbs like say, tell, seem, appear
So you said So he told me So it seems So it appears
– before or after (I) should/would + verbs like expect, hope say
think (implying ‘this is what ought to happen’)-
So I should (or would) hope I Or: / should (or would)hope so’
4.18 ‘So’ or ‘it’ after certain verbs
So and it are normally interchangeable after do, when do substitutes
for another verb which has already been used and when it reflects an
action that has been deliberately performed-
Please lay the table – I ve just done so / l’ve just done it
After verbs like guess, know, remember, it can be used or omitted-
Jack and Jill were secretly married – Yes, I know I had guessed
(= I know it. I had guessed it.)
Possessive adjectives/possessive pronouns
4.19 Form of possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns adjectives my your his her its one’s our your their
pronouns mine yours his hers – – ours yours theirs
4.20 Notes on form (possessive adjectives/pronouns)
1 With the exception of one’s, the apostrophe s (‘s) is unacceptable
with possessive adjectives and pronouns. We should not confuse its
(possessive) with it’s = it is [> 10.6] or it has [> 10.29]
Possessive adjectives/pronouns
2 There are no familiar/non-familiar forms for the second person
singular and plural [> 4.4n.2]: your and yours are used in all cases.
3 One’s can be used as an impersonal possessive adjective, but not
as a pronoun: One’s first duty is to one’s family [> 4.9]
1.21 Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns compared
Possessive adjectives and pronouns show possession, i.e. that
someone or something belongs to somebody. They answer the
question Whose? The possessive adjectives my, your, etc. are
determiners [> 3.1, 4.2.2] and must always be used in front of a noun.
Their form is regulated by the possessor, not by the thing possessed.
His refers to possession by a male: John’s daughter (= his daughter).
Her refers to possession by a female: Jane’s son (= her son).
Its refers to possession by an animal or thing: the cat’s milk (= its
milky the jacket of this book (= its jacket).
My, your and their refer to possession by males or females:
My house is there,’ Sally said /John said
Here is your tea, Sally/John,‘ mother said
The boys’ coats are here and their caps are there
The girls’ coats are here and their berets are there
Their can also refer to possession by animals or things, as in:
Dogs should have their own kennels outside the house
Cars with their engines at the back are very noisy
The possessive pronouns mine, yours, etc. are never used in front of
nouns and are stressed in speech. They refer equally to persons and
things, singular or plural. Its is never used as a pronoun.
These are my children These children are mine
These are my things These things are mine
I can’t find my pen Can you lend me yours?
Possessive pronouns can come at the beginning of a sentence:
This is my cup Yours is the one that’s chipped
My father/My mother is a lawyer – Mine is a doctor
For ‘s/s’ possession without a noun [> 2.44, 2.51].
Noun + of it can sometimes be used in place of its + noun [compare
> 2.50]:
How much is that book? I’ve forgotten the price of it/its price
For the use of of + possessive pronoun [> 2.52].
4.22 The use of ‘my own’
Extra emphasis can be given to the idea of possession by the
addition of own to all possessive adjectives (not pronouns). The
resulting combinations can function as possessive adjectives (my own
room) or possessive pronouns (it is my own). Instead of (my) own +
noun we often use a/an + noun of (my) own-.
I’d love to have my own room/a room of my own
Our cat has its own corner/a corner of its own in this room
Further emphasis can be given with very-
I’d love to have my very own room/a room of my very own
4 Pronouns
We can say one’s own room or a room of one’s own , but we do not
use one as a prop word [> 4.10] after (my) own:
Don’t use my comb Use your own (Not *your own one*)
4.23 The use of ‘the’ in place of possessive adjectives
The is never used with possessive adjectives and pronouns:
This is my car This car is mine, (no the) [> 3.4]
However, sometimes the is used where we might expect a possessive
adjective, e.g. with parts of the body after prepositions:
He punched me in the face A bee stung her on the nose
This use can be extended to hair and clothes (i.e. things which are
‘attached’ to the body):
Miss Pnngle pulled Clannda by the hair/by the sleeve
Possessive adjectives (not *the*) must be used in most other cases:
She shook her head/cleaned her teeth I’ve hurt my finger
In informal contexts, the can be used instead of (usually)my/your/our
children, family, kids , as in:
How’s the family? Where are the children?
But e.g. Meet the wife is familiar but not universally acceptable.
Reflexive pronouns
4.24 Form of reflexive pronouns
singular: myself yourself himself, herself, itself, oneself
plural: ourselves yourselves themselves
Reflexive pronouns are really compounds formed from possessive adjectives + -self; e.g. myself yourse”; or from object pronouns + -self: e.g. himself.
4.25 Obligatory use of reflexive pronouns after certain verbs
There are only a very few verbs in English which must always be
followed by a reflexive pronoun: e.g.absent avail, pride-
The soldier absented himself without leave for three weeks
Other verbs are very commonly followed by reflexives: e.g.amuse
blame, cut, dry, enjoy, hurt, introduce
I cut myself shaving this morning
We really enjoyed ourselves at the funfair
Of course, these verbs can be followed by ordinary objects:
/ ve cut my lip We enjoyed the funfair
The important thing to remember is that verbs of this kind are never
followed by object pronouns (me, him, her, etc.) when the subject and
object refer to the same person:
I’ve cut myself (Not ‘me”)
Note that these verbs are all transitive [> 1.9]. This means they must
have an object and this is commonly a reflexive pronoun. The one
exception is the intransitive verb behave , which can be followed (but
need not be) by a reflexive pronoun:
Please behave (yourself)1 The children behaved (themselves)
Reflexive pronouns
4.26 Optional use of reflexive pronouns after certain verbs
Other verbs which can point the action back to the subject (e.g.
dress, hide, shave, wash) can be intransitive, so we don’t need
reflexive pronouns, though it would not be ‘wrong’ to use them. When
these verbs are intransitive, it is assumed that the subject is doing the
action to himself:
/ must dress/wash (as opposed to dress/wash myself)
We often use (and stress) reflexive pronouns after such verbs when
referring to children, the very old, invalids, etc. to indicate that an
action is performed with conscious effort:
Polly’s nearly learnt how to dress herself now
4.27 Verbs which are not normally reflexive
Verbs such as get up, sit down, stand up, wake up and combinations
with gef (get cold/hot/tired, dressed, married), often reflexive in other
European languages, are not normally so in English:
/ got up with difficulty
Reflexives would be used for special emphasis only:
Will you get yourself dressed? We’re late
4.28 Reflexive pronouns as objects of ordinary verbs
Reflexive pronouns can be used after many ordinary verbs if we wish
to point back to the subject:
/ got such a shock when I saw myself in the mirror.
Reflexives can be used as indirect objects:
The boss gave himself a rise (= gave a rise to himself)
Note there are a number of short conversational expressions with
reflexive pronouns: e.g. Help yourself, Make yourself at home1, Don’t
upset yourself!; and also a few fixed expressions: e.g. hear (yourself)
speak, make (yourself) heard
I couldn’t make myself heard above the noise
There is a difference in meaning between themselves and each other
after verbs such as accuse, blame, help, look at [compare > 5.28]:
The two bank clerks blamed themselves for the mistake
(= They both took the blame.)
The two bank clerks blamed each other for the mistake
(= The one blamed the other.)
4.29 Reflexive pronouns as objects of prepositions
Reflexive pronouns can occur after prepositions which often follow
verbs, nouns or adjectives [> Apps 27-29]:
Look after yourself!
Lucy’s looking very pleased with herself
or in combination with adverb particles: the reflexive comes between
the verb and the particle [> 8.28]:
We gave ourselves up
We pulled ourselves out (of the water)
4 Pronouns
Myself is sometimes used (unnecessarily) instead of me or I:
They sent invitations to Geoff and myself (me is preferable)
Kate and myself think (Kate and I. is preferable)
Reflexives also occur in a few idiomatic expressions, such as:
Strictly between ourselves, do you think she’s sane?
In itself his illness is nothing to worry about
In all other cases we use object pronouns after prepositions when the
reference is to place or after with-.
I haven’t got any money on me (Not *myself*)
There was a bus in front of us (Not “ourselves*)
Did you bring any money with you?
By + reflexive means ‘unaided’ or ‘alone’:
Susie made this doll’s dress all by herself (= unaided)
He lives by himself (= alone)
Reflexives can be used for emphasis after e.g. but and than-.
You can blame no one but yourself (= except yourself)
Harry would like to marry a girl younger than himself
After some prepositions we can use either form of pronoun:
/ think this new magazine is aimed at people like us/ourselves
Who’s prepared to work overtime besides me/myself9
4.30 Reflexive pronouns used for emphasis
Reflexive pronouns can be used freely (but optionally) after nouns and
pronouns for emphasis to mean ‘that person/thing and only that
person/thing’ (/ myself, you yourself, Tom himself, etc.):
You yourself heard the explosion quite clearly
The engine itself is all right, but the lights are badly damaged
The reflexive can also come at the end of a sentence or clause:
You heard the explosion yourself
and particularly where there is a comparison or contrast:
Tom’s all right himself, but his wife is badly hurt
When used for special emphasis, reflexives are stressed in speech,
especially when there is a possibility of ambiguity:
Mr Bates rang the boss him’self (and not the boss’s secretary)
Reflexive pronouns are used in (often rude) rejoinders, such as:
Can you fetch my bags, please? – Fetch them yourself
And note the special use of Do it yourself (often abbreviated to D.I.Y.)
to refer to decorating, repairs, etc. we do ourselves (e.g. to save
money) instead of employing others:
/ read about it in a Do It Yourself magazine
4.31 Reflexive pronouns after ‘be’ and verbs related to ‘be’
After be and related verbs such as fee/, look, seem, reflexives can be
used to describe feelings, emotions and states:
/ don’t know what’s the matter with me I’m not myself today
Occasionally, we use a possessive adjective + adjective + self (noun):
Meg doesn’t look her usual cheerful self today
Frank didn’t sound his happy self on the phone this morning
i Demonstrative ad ectives/pronouns
Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
4.32 Form of demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
‘Near’ references matching here:
singular this boy girl tree book money
plural: these boys girls trees books
‘Distant’ references matching there:
singular: that boy girl tree book money
plural: those boys girls trees books
4.33 ‘This/that’ and ‘these/those’: nearness and distance
‘Nearness’ may be physical. This and these may refer to something
you are actually holding or that is close to you, or that you consider to
be close to you, or to something that is present in a situation. We can
associate this and these with here:
The picture I am referring to is this one here
The photographs I meant are these here
This and these can refer to nearness in time (now):
Go and tell him now, this instant’
‘Distance’ may be physical. That and those can refer to something
that is not close to you, or that you do not consider to be close to you.
We can associate that and those with there:
The picture I am referring to is that one there
The photographs I meant are those there
That and those can refer to distance in time {then):
Operations were difficult in the 18th century In those days there
were no anaesthetics
4.34 Demonstrative adjectives/pronouns compared
Demonstratives can be adjectives: that is, they can be determiners
[> 3 1] and go before a noun or one/ones [> 4.10]; or they can be
pronouns used in place of a noun or noun phrase [> 4.2.1]:
adjective + noun: / don’t like this coat
adjective + one I don’t like this one
pronoun: I don’t like this
Demonstratives used as pronouns normally refer to things, not people:
/ found this wallet I found this (pronoun)
/ know this girl (this cannot stand on its own here)
Demonstrative pronouns after What? refer to things:
What’s this/that? What are these/those?
This and that as pronouns after Who? refer to people:
Who’s this9 Who’s that9
These and those referring to people are followed by a (plural) noun.
Compare What are these/those9 (i.e. things) with:
Who are these/those people/men/women/children?
But those, closely followed by who, can be used on its own:
Those (of you) who wish to go now may do so quietly
4 Pronouns
4.35 Common uses of ‘this/that’ and ‘these/those’
This/that/these/those used as adjectives or as pronouns have many
different uses. For examples [> App 7].
4.36 Subject pronouns replacing demonstratives
Demonstratives are replaced by it or they in short responses when the
thing or things referred to have been identified [compare > 13.19n7]:
Is this/that yours? Yes, it is (Not *Yes, this/that is*)
Are these/those yours? Yes, they are. (Not *Yes, these/those are*)
He/she can replace this/that when the reference is to people:
This/That is Mrs/Mr Jones She’s/He’s in charge here
Indefinite pronouns
4.37 Form of indefinite pronouns
Compounds of some, any, no and every
some- any- no- every-
someone anyone no one everyone
somebody anybody nobody everybody
something anything nothing everything
4.38 Notes on the form of indefinite pronouns
1 There is no noticeable difference in meaning and use between -one
forms and -body forms. They refer to male(s) and female(s).
2 These compounds (except no one) are normally written as one word.
3 These compounds (except those formed with -thing) have a genitive
form [> 2.48]: Grammar isn’t everyone’s idea of fun
4 Compare compound adverbs which are formed with -where:
somewhere, anywhere, nowhere and everywhere [> 7.18].
4.39 Uses of ‘some/any/no/every’ compounds
Some/any/no/every compounds (except -where compounds) function
as pronouns. They are called indefinite because we do not always
know who or what we are referring to. These compounds follow the
rules given for the use of some, any and no [> 5.10-11].
Briefly, some compounds are used in:
– the affirmative: / met someone you know last night
– questions expecting ‘yes’: Was there something you wanted?
– offers and requests: Would you like something to drink?
Any compounds are used:
– iegative statements: There isn’t anyone who can help you
– in questions when we are doubtful about the answer:
te there anyone here who’s a doctor7
– with hardly, etc: I’ve had hardly anything to eat today
No compounds are used when the verb is affirmative [> 13.9]:
There’s no one here at the moment
(= There isn’t anyone…)
Indefinite pronouns
4.40 Personal pronoun reference with indefinite pronouns
The main problem (also for native speakers) is to know which
personal pronouns to use to ‘replace’ the indefinite pronouns referring
to people (someone anyone’no one-everyone). This is because
English has no singular personal pronouns for both male and female.
If we want to use personal pronouns (in place of the gaps) in a
sentence like:
Everyone knows what has to do doesn t ?
the traditional rule is to use masculine pronouns, unless the context is
definitely female (e.g. a girls’ school):
Everyone knows what he has to do doesn t he?
However, in practice, the plural pronouns, they them, etc. (which refer
to both sexes) are used instead without a plural meaning:
Everyone knows what they have to do don’t they?
This has the advantage of avoiding clumsy combinations like he or
she and does not annoy mixed groups of people. However, it is not
considered acceptable by some native speakers [compare > 2.41,5.31].
4.41 Indefinite pronouns + adjectives and/or the infinitive
Indefinite pronouns can combine with:
– positive adjectives: This is something special
This isn ‘t anything important
– comparative adjectives: I’d like something cheaper
– the infinitive: Haven’t you got anything to do?
– for (me) + infinitive: Is there anything for me to sit on?
(Note that adjectives come after indefinite pronouns.)
4.42 Indefinite pronouns + ‘else’
Like question-words (What Who, etc. [> 13.31n8]), indefinite pronouns
readily combine with else (everyone else someone else, anything
else, etc.); else can mean ‘additional/more’ or ‘different’:
– ‘more’: We need one more helper Can you find anyone else?
– ‘different’: Take this back and exchange it for something else
Anything (else) and nothing (else) can be followed by but
Nothing (else) but a major disaster will get us to realize that we
can t go on destroying the ram forests of the world
Else than is also heard, but this is usually replaced by other than,
especially with reference to people:
Someone other than your brother should be appointed manager
Indefinite pronouns referring to people can combine with else s
This isn’t mine It s someone else’s It’s someone else’s coat
Literature:
1. Адамчик М.В. Великий англо-український словник. – Київ, 2007.
2. Англійська мова за професійним спрямуванням: Медицина: навч. посіб. для студ. вищ. навч. закл. IV рівня акредитації / І. А. Прокоп, В. Я. Рахлецька, Г. Я. Павлишин ; Терноп. держ. мед. ун-т ім. І. Я. Горбачевського. – Тернопіль: ТДМУ : Укрмедкнига, 2010. – 576 с.
3. Балла М.І., Подвезько М.Л. Англо-український словник. – Київ: Освіта, 2006. – Т. 1,2.
4. Hansen J. T. Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book. – Saunders Elsevier, 2010. – 121 p.
5. Henderson B., Dorsey J. L. Medical Terminology for Dummies. – Willey Publishing, 2009. – P. 189-211.
