N 2. Medical education in Ukraine, Great Britain, and the USA. Nouns. The plural form of nouns.

Medical education in the United States includes educational activities involved in the education and training of medical doctors in the United States, from entry-level training through to continuing education of qualified specialists.

A typical outline of the medical education pathway is presented below; however, medicine is a diverse profession with many options available. For example, some doctors work in pharmaceutical research, occupational medicine (within a company), public health medicine (working for the general health of a population in an area), or join the armed forces.

Medical school

In the United States a medical school is a four year institution with the purpose of educating physicians in the field of medicine. This article discusses the the medical education of allopathic and osteopathic physicians. See this article for a discussion of naturopathic medical education.

Admissions

Admission into medical school usually requires either three years of undergraduate study (very rare) or a four-year bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university, depending on the medical institution. Nearly all medical schools require the applicant to have attained a bachelor's degree prior to matriculation. Admissions criteria may include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools, the score on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), application essays, letters of recommendation (most schools require either one letter from the undergraduate institution's premedical advising committee or a combination of letters from at least one science faculty and one non-science faculty), and interviews.

Beyond objective admissions criteria, many programs look for candidates who have had unique experiences in community service, volunteer-work, international studies, and research. The application essay is the primary opportunity for the candidate to describe her/his reasons for entering a medical career. The essay requirements are usually open-ended to allow creativity and flexibility for the candidate to draw upon their personal experiences/challenges to make her/him stand out amongst other applicants. If granted, an interview serves as an additional way to express these subjective strengths that a candidate may possess.

Most commonly, the bachelor degree is in one of the biological sciences, but not always; in 2005, nearly 40% of medical school matriculants had received bachelor's degrees in fields other than biology or specialized health sciences. All medical school applicants must, however, complete year-length undergraduate courses with labs in biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics; some medical schools have additional requirements such as biochemistry, calculus, and English.

A student with a bachelor's degree who has not taken the premedical coursework may complete a postbaccalaureate (postbacc) program. Such programs allow rapid fulfillment of prerequisite course work as well as grade point average improvement. Some postbacc programs are specifically linked to individual medical schools to allow matriculation without a gap year.

Several universities across the U.S. admit high school students to both their undergraduate colleges and the medical schools simultaneously; students attend a single six-year to eight-year integrated program consisting of two to four years of an undergraduate curriculum and four years of medical school curriculum, culminating in both a bachelor's and M.D. degree or a bachelor's and D.O. degree.

While not necessary for admission, several private organizations have capitalized on this complex and involved process by offering services ranging from single-component preparation(MCAT, essay, etc.) to entire application review/consultation.

Program

Once admitted to medical school, it takes four years to complete a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.). The course of study is divided into two roughly equal components: pre-clinical and clinical. Both allopathic (M.D.) and osteopathic physicians (D.O.) have equal rights and an equal scope of practice in the United States, with some osteopaths supplementing their practice with principles of osteopathic medicine in addition to the mainstream allopathic methods.

Preclinical study generally comprises the first two years and consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in core subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, histology, embryology, microbiology, pathology, pathophysiology, and neurosciences. Once students successfully complete preclinical training, they generally take step one of the medical licensing boards, the USMLE, or the COMLEX.

The clinical component usually occupies the final two years of medical school and takes place almost exclusively on the wards of a teaching hospital or, occasionally, with community-based physicians. The students observe and take part in the care of patients under the supervision of resident and attending physicians. Rotations are required in internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, family medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, neurology, and psychiatry. Beyond these, a variable number of specialty electives are required. During the fourth year, most medical students take Step 2 of the medical licensing boards (USMLE, or COMLEX). Upon completion of medical school, the student gains the title of doctor and the degree of M.D. or D.O., but cannot practice independently until completing at least an internship and also Step 3 of the USMLE or COMLEX.

Many medical schools also offer joint degree programs in which some medical students may simultaneously enroll in master's or doctoral-level programs in related fields such as a Masters in Business Administration, Masters in Health Care Administration, Masters in Public Health, JD, MALD, and Masters in Health Communication.

Internship

During the last year of medical school, students apply for postgraduate residencies in their chosen field of specialization. These vary in competitiveness depending upon the desirability of the specialty, prestige of the program, and the number of applicants relative to the number of available positions. All but a few positions are granted via a national computer match which pairs an applicant's preference with the programs' preference for applicants.

Historically, post-graduate medical education began with a free-standing, one-year internship. Completion of this year continues to be the minimum training requirement for obtaining a general license to practice medicine in most states. However, because of the gradual lengthening of post-graduate medical education, and the decline of its use as the terminal stage in training, most new physicians complete the internship requirement as their first year of residency.

Notwithstanding the trend toward internships integrated into categorical residencies, the one-year "traditional rotating internship" (sometimes called a "transitional year") continues to exist. Some use it to re-apply to programs into which they were not accepted, while others use it as a year to decide upon a specialty. In addition, five states still require osteopathic physicians to complete a traditional rotating internship before residency.

Residency

Each of the specialties in medicine has established its own curriculum, which defines the length and content of residency training necessary to practice in that specialty. Programs range from three years after medical school for internal medicine to five years for surgery to six or seven for neurosurgery. This does not include research years that may last from one to four years if a PhD degree is pursued. Each specialty training program incorporates an internship year to satisfy the requirements of state licensure.

[edit] Fellowship

Some highly specialized fields require formal training beyond residency. Examples of these include cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery; reproductive endocrinology/infertility, maternal-fetal medicine, gynecologic oncology after obstetrics/gynecology. There are many others for each field of study. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are fellows to denote that they already have completed a residency and are Board Eligible or Board certified in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board. Fellowships often contain a research component.

Continuing education

The physician or surgeon who has completed his or her residency and possibly fellowship training and is in the practice of their specialty is known as an attending physician or consultant. Each specialty has requirements for practitioners to undertake continuing medical education activities.

Medical Education in the United States

As I explained yesterday, every Monday until I run out of volunteers I’m going to be featuring a description of medical education around the world. Today’s country is the United States. Please let me know if I left out anything you are curious about and come back next week to learn about Belgium’s system!

Getting In:

How old is one when they begin medical school?

It varies depending on if you start right after college (22-ish), take a few years off or go back after a long time out of college. The average age in our class is probably around 26 or 27.

What exams does one have to take to get in?

The Medical College Admissions Test (commonly known as “MCAT”) is the entrance exam for medical school. It’s a 4ish hour computerized exam that covers physical sciences (physics and inorganic chemistry) and biological sciences (biology and organic chemistry), as well as verbal/reading skills and writing abilities.

Is there any required pre-requisite coursework?

Most schools require one year each of Biology with Laboratory, Inorganic Chemistry with Laboratory, Organic Chemistry with Laboratory, Physics with Labratory and English, as well as one semester (half-year) each of Calculus and Biochemistry.

Is it a competitive occupation?

I would say getting into medical school in the United States is relatively competitive. You need to have a record of good scores for your four years of college and a good score on the MCAT, as well as clinical experience and volunteering history. That being said, it is by no means impossible. Obviously.

What are you called at this stage of training?

Pre-Med

Being In:

How long is it?

Four years

How are the years broken down?

Two years of basic sciences, two years of clinical training.

Describe your typical day.

1st/2nd Years (“MS1/MS2”): Several hours of lecture a day followed by long stretches of studying and lots of exam-taking. 3rd/4th years (“MS3/MS4”): As best I know, since I’m not quite there yet, in the third and fourth year you basically spend your day in the hospital or clinic seeing patients and receiving instruction from your teaching doctors (“attendings”). There are six 3rd year rotations – Family Practice, Obstetrics/Gynecology, Internal Medicine, Psychiatry, Pediatrics and Surgery, with a shelf exam at the conclusion of each rotation.

If you choose a specialty, when do you have to decide by?

Most people will decide what specialty they want to go into by the end of their 3rd year rotations.

What are you called at this stage of training?

“Medical Student” or “MS” followed by your year in school (1, 2, 3, or 4).

Getting Out:

What exams do you have to take?

We are required to pass the United States Medical Licensing Exam (“USMLE”) prior to working as a doctor. We take “USMLE Step 1” after our second year, it is an 8 hour exam covering basic clinical sciences. “USMLE Step 2” has a clinical knowledge part and clinical skills part that has to be passed before graduation at the end of your 4th year. “USMLE Step 3” is taken at the end of your residency training.

Do most people graduate?

From what I understand the graduation rate at US medical schools is over 96%. Some people have to repeat years or take a year off, but most people do eventually successfully graduate.

When are you finally considered a “doctor?”

After your 4th year of med school you graduate and are offically an “MD.” (Note: There is a osteopathic medicine degree called “DO” in the US – it is essentially the same degree as an MD except they have additional training in Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine. Doctors with DO degrees can do all the same things doctors with MD degrees can do and their training track is almost identical.)

Do you have additional training or do you start working immediately?

In the US we must complete a residency training program before practicing alone as a physician. Residencies range from 3 – 7 years depending on the specialty you’re learning to practice in. During this time you are paid around $40,000/year, which comes to $10/hour for 80 hour work weeks. Nope, not a typo – 80 hours/week…and that’s the restricted amount that was put into place a few years ago because residents were sometimes working 100+ hours/week. You apply to residency as a 4th year medical student (MS4) and begin working after graduation. Some residency positions are extremely competitive (Radiology, Dermatology, Orthopedic Surgery, anything at a big-name, famous hospital, etc.) and others are not.

What’s the average debt for attendance?

The national average for Medical School debt (before interest is added) is about $158,000 (USD). Some people graduate with significantly less and some who attend very expensive schools may graduate with over $200,000. This would be in addition to any college debt one had accrued as an undergraduate before beginning school.

What are you called at this stage of training?

After graduation you are officially a “doctor.” For your first year of residency you’ll be considered an “intern” and for the rest of your residency training you will be referred to as a “resident physician.”

Being Out:

What’s the average salary?

The numbers for this are significantly different between specialties and states, so it’s hard to give a true estimate (not to mention, every source you refer to has different information). According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics – in 2008 physicians working in primary care field had total median annual compensation of $186,044, and physicians practicing in medical specialties earned total median annual compensation of $339,738. Here’s a good blog post from KevinMD on the subject of physician compensation in the US.

Is the job security good?

I don’t think most doctors struggle to find a job, but then again I have never looked for a job as a physician.

Can you go back and choose a different specialty?

If you do your residency in Pediatrics and suddenly decide you would like to become a surgeon you have to re-apply to residency. If you get accepted your pay drops back down to the $40,000/year resident salary and you are required to complete another residency before you can switch fields. So, yes – you can switch specialties, but no – it is not easy or painless.

What are you called at this stage of training?

PGY-1 (Post-Graduate Year 1, this is the first year of residency) = Intern. PGY-2+ you are simply a Resident Physician. Following graduation from residency you are considered an “attending physician” which just signifies that you have completed your full medical training.

Medical Education in Great Britain

Physicians in Great Britain are trained either in medical schools or faculties of Universities. To enter a high medical school candidates must pass entrance examinations on chemistry, physics and biology or mathematics. In Great Britain all students pay for training, but most of them receive grants, which cover their expenses or a part of them.

In Great Britain the academic year is divided into three terms. Each term lasts for 10-11 weeks. The terms run from October to December, from January to March and from April to June. At the end of each term students take final exams (sessionals).

In Great Britain the undergraduate education takes 5 years (two years of basic sciences and three years of clinical work). During the first two pre-clinical years students study human anatomy and biology, physics, organic and biological chemistry, physiology and histology, statistics and genetics. They attend lectures and do practical work in labs.

From the third year the students .study the methods of-eimical examinations and history taking, general pathology, microbiology, pharmacology and community medicine, therapy, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, ophthalmology and others. Senior students have a lot of practical work with patients in clinics, hospitals and out-patient departments. After the three years of clinical practice the students obtain degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery. These degrees give the right to register as a medical practitioner.

After the finals graduates work in hospitals for a year. This period is called internship. After this period a young doctor obtains a «Certificate of Experience» and he or she may work as a medical practitioner.

In Great Britain only medical practitioners may obtain further specialization, training in residency. It takes lor 2 years of working in a hospital in some field. Residency trains highly qualified specialists in a definite field: gynaecologists, urologists, neurologists and others.

Life Sciences

About the Division

The University has a wealth and depth of experience in the Biosciences, having run both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees for more than 30 years.Teaching in the Division received a rating of excellent in the last Government assessment by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA).

The Division offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses, covering varying aspects of Biomedical, Medical, Forensic Sciences and Biotechnology. In each of these areas, courses are offered at both undergraduate level, i.e. Foundation and BSc Honours degrees, and post graduate level, from MSc by research and taught programmes, through to MPhil and PhD

Undergraduate study

All undergraduate students undertake a research project in their third year, and some students undertake this within clinical, pharmaceutical, medical research laboratories at collaborating, or nearby, institutions.

Excellent facilities

As a result of continuing investment the Division has modern, well-equipped laboratories and other facilities for undergraduate teaching, with more specialised facilities dedicated to post-graduate and staff research and commercial activity. Most staff undertake research or other professional activities, and regularly present their findings at local, national and international conferences. Staff therefore have a good understanding of both academic and applied, or professional, aspects of their subjects that helps us offer courses that not only meet the demands and expectations of the students enrolled on them, but also ensures that our graduates are highly employable.

Professional accreditation

Professional accreditation is an important aspect of this employability. A popular course at the University is the Biomedical Science Degree, which is accredited by the Institute of Biomedical Sciences (IBMS).

As part of this course, placement opportunities for students within National Health Service (NHS) Laboratories can feature as an option. The Physiology laboratories used by the Division also have full accreditation by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Science (BASES). Thus, in addition to gaining a highly applied academic degree, student’s CVs are also developed!

Careers

Students from the Division have gone on to a wide range of careers, e.g. in hospital, university routine and research laboratories as technicians, research assistants or (eventually) managers. Others have gone on to work in pharmaceutical and other industrial and commercial laboratories. Some have chosen to go onto teaching while others have pursued other careers including medical and scientific sales, retailing and business.

Further training

With regards further training, students from the Division have been accepted on medical training programs, such as Medicine and Radiography, some onto overseas veterinary training programmes and some have gone on to undertake MSc's, PhD's, etc at both newer and much older universities, including Oxford.

Application routes

Degree programmes in the Division offer flexible entry routes and, in addition to traditional A-level qualifications, we also welcome applicants with HND's, Foundation Degrees or other qualifications. Individuals who can demonstrate suitable applied learning or experience or professional qualifications, rather than simply academic qualifications, are also invited to make enquiries about our courses.

Medical Universities in Great Britain

There are thirty-two medical schools in the United Kingdom that are recognised by the General Medical Council and from which students can obtain a medical degree. There are twenty-four such schools in England, five in Scotland, two in Wales and one in Northern Ireland. All but Warwick Medical School and Swansea Medical School offer undergraduate courses in medicine. The Bute Medical School (University of St Andrews) and Durham Medical School offer undergraduate pre-clinical courses only, with students proceeding to another medical school for clinical studies. Although Oxford University and Cambridge University offer both pre-clinical and clinical courses in medicine, students who study pre-clinical medicine at one of these universities may move to another university for clinical studies. At other universities students stay at the same university for both pre-clinical and clinical work.

The earliest place of medical training in Britain was Barts Hospital, now part of Queen Mary, University of London, where it has taken place continuously since its foundation in 1123. Medical teaching has taken place at the University of Oxford since at least the 13th century and its first Regius Professor of medicine appointed in 1546. Medical teaching began at the foundation of University of Aberdeen School of Medicine in 1495, although even as late as 1787 there were calls "for the establishment of a medical school" in Aberdeen.

Charterhouse Square, home to Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry

Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry is the medical and dental school of Queen Mary, University of London.[1] The school was formed in 1995 by the merger of the London Hospital Medical College (the first school to be granted an official charter for medical teaching in 1785) and the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital (the oldest remaining hospital in the United Kingdom, having been founded in 1123, with medical teaching beginning from that date) and Queen Mary and Westfield College.

The school exists on two main sites, having a presence at the site of both of the former colleges at and near their respective hospitals, St Bartholomew's Hospital (in Smithfield, City of London and nearby in Charterhouse Square), and the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel, Tower Hamlets with an additional site at Queen Mary's main (Mile End) campus. A new building (Blizard Building), named after the founder of The London Hospital Medical College, Sir William Blizard, was recently completed at the Royal London site, and houses research laboratories and is the main site for medical undergraduate teaching.

In the 2008 government Research Assessment Exercise, the school was ranked first for the quality of its medical research in London and fourth overall nationally; the dental school was ranked joint first. As of 2008 the school accepted 277 British medical students per annum and an additional 17 from overseas, making it one of the largest medical schools in the United Kingdom. The medical school is part of Queen Mary, University of London, a constituent college of the federal University of London, and a member of the United Hospitals.

History

St Bartholomew's and the Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry was formed in 1995 by a merger of St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College and the London Hospital Medical College with Queen Mary and Westfield College, now known as Queen Mary, University of London.

The Medical College at the Royal London Hospital, England's first official medical school, opened in 1785, pioneering a new kind of medical education, with an emphasis on theoretical and clinical teaching. A purpose-built lecture theatre was constructed at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1791 and in 1822 the Governors approved the provision of medical education within the hospital. Later a residential college was established, which moved to premises at Charterhouse Square in the 1930s. At the Royal London, larger premises, still in use by the medical school, were built in Turner Street in 1854. In 1900 both medical colleges became constituent colleges of the University of London in the Faculty of Medicine.

The Dental School opened at the London in 1911, acquiring the new Dental Institute and expanding student numbers during the 1960s. Dental education developed during the 1970s, increasing collaboration between dentists and other professionals.

Between the Wars, students at the Royal London requiring a prerequisite MB (in biology, chemistry and physics) attended Queen Mary College for a year, before proceeding to a second MB at the London. Women students were first admitted to both colleges following World War II.

A close association between the two medical colleges was developed following the Royal Commission on Medical Education in 1968, and new links with the then Queen Mary College were established at the same time. In 1989 the pre-clinical teaching at the two medical colleges was merged and sited in the Basic Medical Sciences Building at Queen Mary (where it stayed until 2005, when it was moved to the Blizard Building at the Whitechapel campus). In 1992, St. Bartholomew's, the Royal London and the London Chest Hospital joined to form the Barts and The London NHS Trust, with a full merger of the medical colleges with Queen Mary taking place three years later.

On 2 March 2011, it was announced that Professor Richard Trembath would succeed Professor Sir Nicholas Wright as Warden of the School in Summer 2011.

Research

The school has a distinguished history in the field of research and teaching, and has been at the forefront in the development of a modern dental and medical curriculum. It serves a diverse population in East London and the wider Thames Gateway, with the differing demographics of East London in contrast to other areas of the country providing the school with a unique teaching opportunity, exposing students to situations and scenarios not commonly encountered elsewhere. Consequently, many of the school's research efforts are focussed on conditions that are prevalent or endemic to the local area, for example, diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, tuberculosis and other chronic lung diseases, HIV, oral disease, and cancer.

St. Bartholomew's Hospital is a recognised area of excellence in the fields of cardiovascular and cancer research, whereas the Royal London Hospital is London's leading trauma and emergency centre. To continue and sustain this standard of care, planning permission was awarded in March 2005 for a £1 billion redevelopment and expansion of the Royal London. Upon its completion in 2011, the Royal London Hospital will consolidate its position as London’s leading trauma and emergency care centre, will have one of Europe’s largest renal services and the capital’s second biggest paediatric service. St. Bartholomew's Hospital is also currently being refurbished and refitted in order to continue its specialised approach to cardiovascular and cancer care. A further £100 million has been invested in creating leading-edge research facilities at both the Whitechapel and West Smithfield/Charterhouse Square campuses, so that the school can continue attracting world-class researchers and funding.

The school has six research institutes:

1. Barts Cancer Institute, which researches cancer and inflammation, cell signalling, experimental cancer medicine, haemato-oncology, molecular oncology and imaging and tumour biology.

2. Blizard Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, which focuses on surgery, paediatrics, cutaneous, diabetes, gastroenterology, haematology, infectious diseases neuroscience, pathology and health sciences.

3. Institute of Dentistry, where research and teaching into adult oral health, oral growth and development, and clinical and diagnostic oral sciences occurs.

4. Institute of Health Sciences Education, which is responsible for the teaching of pre-clinical medical sciences to medical students along with research in medical education and community based medical education.

5. William Harvey Research Institute is a world class research facility focussing on biochemical pharmacology, orthopaedic diseases, endocrinology, genomics, clinical pharmacology and translational medicine and therapeutics.

6. Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine researches preventive medicine, epidemiology, mathematics and statistics, psychology and psychiatry.

Research Assessment Exercise 2008

The Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) is one of the few ways in which the academic quality of British medical and dental schools can be compared and ranks research by two principal measures: the proportion of work graded 4* and 3* – world-leading or internationally recognised respectively - and the Grade Point Average (GPA) across the whole profile of the submission.

The results of the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), published in December 2008, confirmed Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry as one of the leading medical and dental schools in the United Kingdom. For medicine, the school ranked top in the quality of its research in London, and fourth nationally (behind Cambridge, Oxford and Edinburgh); for dentistry, the school was awarded joint first ranking (along with Manchester).

According to the rankings published in the Times Higher Education, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry was consistently ranked in the top five nationally for the following categories:

· Dentistry was ranked 1st equal with Manchester, based on 3* and 4* outputs, and 2nd overall on Grade Point Average out of 14 dental schools.

· In Cancer, Barts and The London was ranked 3rd out of 14 submissions in terms of 3* and 4* outputs and joint 5th in the UK overall.

· The Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, returned in Hospital Subjects, was ranked joint 1st with Cambridge and Edinburgh in terms of 3* and 4* outputs and was joint 7th overall out of 28.

· The Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine, returned in Epidemiology and Public Health, was 2nd out of 21 in terms of 3* and 4* outputs, and 3rd overall.

· In Health Services Research, Barts and The London's Institute of Health Sciences Education was ranked 4th overall out of 28.

· The William Harvey Research Institute, returned in Preclinical and Human Biological Sciences, was ranked 3rd in terms of 3* and 4* outputs, and 4th overall out of 13.

The Complete University Guide gave the medical school an overall ranking of sixth, and the dental school seventh, in the United Kingdom in 2012, citing the institution's strength in research.

Barts and The London Students' Association

Barts and The London Students' Association is the students' union for the medical and dental school, a largely independent arm of Queen Mary Students' Union (QMSU) formed when the student unions of St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School and the London Hospital Clubs Union merged with QMSU at the time their parent bodies merged in 1995. The Students' Association has a very distinct culture from that of QMSU, with its own clubs and societies for most sports and activities, competing in the National Association of Medics' Sports against other schools and universities.

The University of St Andrews began teaching medicine in the late 15th century. The University of Cambridge appointed its first Regius Professor of medicine in 1540 although it is likely teaching occurred well before this date. Teaching began in 1550 at St Thomas' Hospital, London. St George's, University of London has its origins in 1733. The London Hospital Medical College (LHMC) was founded in 1785 and is now part of Queen Mary, University of London's School of Medicine. Formal medical education began in Birmingham in 1767, and in Manchester in 1814. In the early 19th century, medical schools in Belfast, Sheffield, Leeds, Newcastle, and Liverpool were formally established, between 1821 and 1842.

UCL Medical School (formerly Royal Free & University College Medical School)[1] is the medical school of University College London (UCL) and is located in London, United Kingdom. It is one of the United Hospitals.

UCL has offered education in medicine since 1834 but the current school developed from mergers between UCL and the medical schools of the Middlesex Hospital (founded in 1746) and The Royal Free Hospital (founded as the London School of Medicine for Women in 1874).

Clinical medicine is primarily taught at University College Hospital, The Royal Free Hospital and the Whittington Hospital, with other associated teaching hospitals including the Eastman Dental Hospital, Great Ormond Street Hospital, The Heart Hospital, Moorfields Eye Hospital, the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery and the Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital.

The next expansion of medical schools began following the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Medical Education (1965-1968) (the Todd Report), which called for the immediate establishment of new schools in Southampton, Leicester and Nottingham to aid medical education in the United Kingdom; all were built between 1970 and 1980. Medical schools at Warwick (located in the City of Coventry), Swansea, Keele (located in the City of Stoke-on-Trent) and Hull (in partnership with York) eventually opened in the 1990s and early 21st century, as well as new medical schools at University of East Anglia (located in the city of Norwich) Durham, Brighton and Sussex, and Plymouth and Exeter. Buckingham University, one of only two private universities in England, is launching a graduate entry medical school in 2010 although it offers only post-graduate MD qualifications to doctors already qualified to MB BS or equivalent and does not offer initial medical training approved by the General Medical Council.

History

The main portico of University College London

UCL Medical School formed over a number of years from the merger of a number of institutions:

The Middlesex Hospital opened in Fitzrovia in 1745 and was training doctors since 1746.

University College Hospital opened in 1834 as the North London Hospital, with the purpose of providing the then newly opened University College London with a hospital to train medical students after refusal by the governors of the Middlesex Hospital to share its facilities with UCL.

Middlesex Hospital and University College Hospital merged their medical schools in 1987 to form University College & Middlesex School of Medicine (UCMSM).

The London School of Medicine for Women was established in 1874, as the first medical school in Britain to train women. In 1877 The Royal Free Hospital agreed to allow students from LSMW to complete their clinical studies there and by 1896 was renamed The London Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine for Women and became part of the University of London.

In 1998 The Royal Free & University College Medical School (RFUCMS) was formed from the merger of the two medical schools. On 1 October 2008, it was officially renamed UCL Medical School.

In appreciation of the historic beginnings of UCL Medical School, its student society has retained the name "RUMS" (Royal Free, University College and Middlesex Medical Students Society) which runs clubs and societies within UCLU.

Teaching

The Cruciform Building on Gower Street houses the preclinical facilities of the UCL Medical School; it was previously the main building of University College Hospital.

The medical school is one of the largest in the country with a yearly intake of 330 students. Undergraduate teaching is spread across three campuses based in Bloomsbury (the Cruciform, University College Hospital, the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital), at Archway (the Whittington Hospital and the former Royal Holborn Infirmary) and in Hampstead (the Royal Free Hospital).

It has arguably some of the best clinical sites in the country including: Great Ormond Street Hospital, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (Queen's Square), Moorfields Eye Hospital, The Heart Hospital, The Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital and the Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital.

The school is widely regarded as one of the best medical schools in the country (frequently ranked between number 1–5 in the country), it has a very distinguished faculty which includes 78 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences amongst its staff.

A report published in November 2005, by the Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI) found that RFUCMS had the highest expenditure per student, an average spend of £50,103 per student, of any medical school in the country, followed by Oxford University Medical School (£42,348) and Imperial College School of Medicine (£38,223).

Course

The course in medicine at UCL leads to the award of the MB BS and BSc (Hons) degrees and takes six years to complete: 2 years of preclinical medicine, 3 years of clinical medicine, and 1 year studying for the intercalated BSc degree, which at UCL is compulsory for all students except postgraduates. UCL offers a wide variety of intercalation degrees ranging from the traditional subjects like anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, to more clinical courses such as Primary Health. Students select their BSc subject by applying through an internal process during the second year of the programme.

Clinical Skills Lab

Teaching of Anatomy in UCC

There is also the opportunity to intercalate a PhD, either by taking an 'interruption of study' directly after the intercalated BSc, or as part of the integrated MB PhD programme. The latter has been offered by UCL medical school since 1994 and allows students to be offered the MB BS, BSc and PhD degrees in eight years rather than nine if the PhD is undertaken separately.

Postdoctoral students in the lab

Admission

Admission to the medical school, in common with all 32 medical schools in the UK, is extremely competitive. Prospective students must apply through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS). Acceptable qualifications for entry include grades AAA at A-level, to include at least Chemistry and Biology, and a pass at AS-level. The International Baccalaureate (Full Diploma), although less common, is also an acceptable entry qualification. Additionally, applicants must sit an entrance exam, the BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT).

Associated hospitals and institutes

University College Hospital on Euston Road, which opened in 2005.

Hospitals

· University College Hospital

· The Royal Free Hospital

· Whittington Hospital

· Eastman Dental Hospital

· Great Ormond Street Hospital

· The Heart Hospital

· Moorfields Eye Hospital

· National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery

· Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital

Research institutes

· The UCL Institute of Child Health on Guilford Street in Bloomsbury.

· UCL Ear Institute

· UCL Eastman Dental Institute

· UCL Institute of Child Health

· UCL Institute of Neurology

· UCL Institute of Nuclear Medicine

· UCL Institute of Ophthalmology

· UCL Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science

· Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research at UCL

· National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR)

Clubs and societies

As well as being able to join all the UCL clubs and societies, medical students can also join those specifically for them. These clubs and societies are run by the Royal Free, University College and Middlesex Medical Students Society (RUMS) which is the Medsoc within UCL Union and as such is independent of the medical school. In 2011, UCL Medical Society was established providing careers advice and peer teaching for medical students, as well as special interest events. It is the largest medical student society at UCL Union, with 500 members.

VIDEO

Higher Education Today: Health Careers

Partners

In the process of a healthcare facility and a hospital investment and development project, Anthony Healthcare Investment & Management Group Corp mainly focuses on working with the following partners around the world in order to make our project successful:

· Health Canada

· Local governments such as Canadian government, US government, Chinese government and UK government etc.

· Global leading hospitals including Cambridge Memorial Hospital, Toronto General Hospital, Queen's University General Hospital, Queens General Hospital

· World leading health organizations like those leading Canadian hospitals, Canadian Medical Association (CMA), American Medical Association (AMA)

· Leading medical schools and universities such as Harvard Medical School, UCL Medical School and Toronto University Medical School

· International healthcare investment and management firms

· International healthcare and hospital management firms

Medical Education in Ukraine

Ukrainian medical education was considered one of world's best in communist times. Even after the collapse of the Soviet Union, its reputation was still strong enough to attract thousands of foreign students each year.

Several countries including United Arab Emirates, Iran, Kuwait no longer recognise Ukrainian medical diplomas. While number of foreign students in the country keep growing since 2000s, the percentage of foreigners studying medicine has dicreased in recent years. The students are studying IN UKRAINE MEDICAL UNIVERSITIES,COLLEGES from Denmark, Sweden, Malaysia, Bulgaria, Mauritius, India, Pakistan, Maldives, Kenya, Angola, Tunisia, Nigeria, Cameroon, Canada, Egypt, U.S.A, Saudi Arabia, Australia, U.K, Singapore, South-Africa, Lebanese, New-Zealand, Iran, Iraq, Sri-Lanka, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Maldives, Nepal, Palestine, Tunis, Uganda, Venezuela, Peru, Yemen, Tanzania, Lebanon, Morocco, Lesotho, Ghana, U.A.E, Bangladesh, south Africa, Nepal, Bulgaria, Israel, China, Norway, Kuwait, Zimbabwe, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Vietnam, Sierra-Leone, etc.

UKRAINE MEDICAL UNIVERSITIES RECORGNISATION & ACCREDITATIONS

1)Foreign student are eligible to take the United States Medical Licensing Examinations and enter Postgraduate Medical (Residency) training in United States.

2)IMED accreditation is recognized by the Education Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) and the Medical Council of Canada (MCC) for eligibility of graduates to obtain certification and Licensure.

3)Ukraine Universities are recognized by the World Health Organization

4) International students are eligible to participate in the United States Medical Licensing Examination & receive ECFMG certification. The ECFMG certification requires all graduates to have passed USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 (both sections), submit a final transcript, and provide a copy of the graduate's diploma for verification. Once ECFMG certification has been granted the graduates are eligible for Postgraduate Medical education (Residency Training) in the United States.

5)Most Ukraine Medical Universities are recognized by the Indian Medical Council, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council, European Council of Medicine and General Medical Council (limited Registration) of UK.

6)Most Ukraine medical Universities have relations with many Scientific Institutions of former USSR and all over the world, such as The Poland Medical Academy, The Cambridge University, The Virden University, Clinics of Urgent Medicine in Germany, Belgium, Austria and Israel. Medical center of Cardiff (England), Medical Center in Sent-Etien (France), New York Medical Center, Ukrainian Medical Society in Canada and Austria.

7) Ukraine medical students are eligible for appearing in United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) and many more etc.

8) Ukraine medical student are eligible for The Professional Linguistic Assessment Board (PLAB) of the United Kingdom (UK)

Most of Ukraine medical Universities ,colleges offers the following courses to students who wish for a Bachelor’s degree, after higher secondary school.

General Medicine (Doctor of Medicine Degree) - 6 years course

Dentistry (Doctor of Dentistry Degree) - 5 year course

Pediatrics (Doctor of Medicine Degree) - 6 year course

Pharmacy (Bachelor of Pharmacy Degree) - 5 year course

Nursing (RN) - 3 / 4 year course

It is a six year course awarding "Doctor of Medicine" (MD) degree. This is equivalent to "Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery" (MBBS) degree awarded by Commonwealth countries such as UK, Australia, India etc. Admission to the course is commenced after a contract signed duly between the student and university. Fees for international students are denominated in USD and remain constant over the duration of the contract.

The medium of instruction is English for all six years for international students. The course is offered in Russian /Ukrainian for local candidates. Candidates studying in English medium for the six years are given language classes for the first two years, so they may be proficient in the local language for conversing with the patients and everyday use.

The Curriculum taught in the University is approved by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Public Health of Ukraine.

Students are formed in small groups of 6-10 for the classes. Due to a small student group, individual attention is possible for each student. For the first two years the students are taught in class. In 2nd year, students are also taught clinical subjects and given clinical training in Hospitals for practical experience.

A student needs to read the textbook and do self-preparation before attending a class. Notes are provided for the same. Students can borrow books from the library or purchase their own books. Students need 100% class attendance. If they are absent, they have to rework the class in the weekend, after due permission from the course teacher.

Each class session is graded. There are internal examinations to be passed. Each year of education is important and should be passed before the student is permitted to graduate. In addition to the university's internal examination, the Student has to pass State Test (external examination) before graduating the 3rd and 6th year of education. In the year of graduation, the student is tested on practical proficiency on clinical discipline at the patient's bed (Practical test) and on scientific and theoretical proficiency (Theoretical test). Both have to be passed before graduation.

After graduation, the student can practice or enroll in over 20 specializations offered by the university such as cardiology, clinical medicine, oncology, radiology, public health etc

Dentistry (Stomatology)

It is a five year course. Students are taught basic medical and biological profile and the clinical disciplines for dentistry. On completion of the study the graduates are awarded the "Diploma of a Doctor " or the degree of BDS. Students are taught theoretical and clinical disciplines such as therapeutic and orthopedic stomatology. The department is well equipped in terms of premises, equipment, teaching aids. A teaching hospital in the center of the city is loaded with patients. Students study the principal problems of dentistry: Dental caries, Periodontitis and diseases of the mucous membrane in the mouth cavity. The principal task of the faculty is the perfection of higher dentistry education. The faculty optimizes the educational process aimed at activating the cognitive ability of students, developing a habit for educational & research and incorporating a creative approach for professional activity. The faculty helps students to obtain excellent knowledge in the dental field. It grows and develops, absorbing all the best, from the experience of the university's work. The University also offers post graduate course and clinical training in Dentistry.

Pediatrics

It is a six year course awarding the "Doctor of Pediatrics" degree. It is offered in Russian and Ukrainian language only. The course is similar to "General Medicine" but clinical focus is on the infant, surgery of the infant etc. Those who complete this course acquire the diploma of a Pediatrician. The student receives general biological and medical education in first two years. Pediatric education starts from the third to sixth year.Students master knowledge in children’s anatomy, physiology, pathology and hygiene, diseases, treatment of inborn defects, hip and hip-joint development and others. Post graduate courses and clinical training is offered.

Pharmacy

It is a five year course awarding the "Bachelor of Pharmacy" degree. Course is offered in Russian and Ukrainian language only. Students are taught fundamentals of medicine and biology and some clinical aspects too. On completion the diploma of pharmacist is awarded. They are trained to work in companies and / or for research. A methodical is created for training highly qualified specialists. The prime departments are: pharmacology, biology, genetics, botany, in-organic chemistry, analytical, physical and organic chemistry. Post graduate and master courses are also offered in Pharmacy.

Nursing

It is a three year or a four year course awarding the "Bachelor of Nursing" degree. Students first study fundamental medical and biological disciplines, then clinical subjects and nursing in different situations. Practical and theoretical training is given in class and in hospitals.

What is a Noun?

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:

Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.

Portia White was an opera singer.

The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.

According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.

Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

Noun Gender

Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.

David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.

Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.

The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"

Noun Plurals

Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:

When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.

Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.

As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an unexpected echo.

I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.

He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.

Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.

There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences:

The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.

There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.

Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.

The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.

The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"

The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.

Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.

Possessive Nouns

In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:

The red suitcase is Cassandra's.

The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.

The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.

The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:

The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.

The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.

Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:

The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.

The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.

Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.

The men's hockey team will be play as soon as the women's team is finished.

The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:

The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.

The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.

The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.

Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates.

Using Possessive Nouns

When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:

The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.

The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.

In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.

In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.

In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."

Types Of Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.

If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.

Proper Nouns

You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun

In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:

The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.

Many people dread Monday mornings.

Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.

Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.

Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.

Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.

In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:

According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.

All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.

I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.

The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.

Many child-care workers are underpaid.

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:

The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.

The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.

Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.

The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.

Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:

The judge handed the files to the clerk.

Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.

The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.

As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.

The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.

Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.

Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.

Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:

We painted the table red and the chairs blue.

Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.

Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.

The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.

Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:

Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.

Oxygen is essential to human life.

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."

We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.

You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.

The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.

Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."

The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.

You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.

Gravel is more expensive than I thought.

Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:

The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

The collective noun "geese" takes the singular verb "spends."

The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb "is dining."

The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.

Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."

The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was startled".

NOUN

What a noun is and what it does

A noun tells us what someone or something is called For example, a
noun can be the name of a person (John), a job title (doctor) the
name of a thing (radio), the name of a place (London), the name of a
quality (courage), or the name of an action (laughter/laughing) Nouns
are the names we give to people, things, places, etc in order to
identify them Many nouns are used after a determiner, e g a the this
[> 3.1] and often combine with other words to form a noun phrase
e g the man the man next door that tall building the old broom in
the cupboard Nouns and noun phrases answer the questions Who?
or What? and may be

- the subject of a verb [> 1.4]

Our agent in Cairo sent a telex this morning

- the direct object of a verb [> 1.9]

Frank sent an urgent telex from Cairo this morning

- the indirect object of a verb [> 1.9]
Frank sent his boss a telex

- the object of a preposition [> 8.1]
/ read about it in the paper

- the complement of be or a related verb like seem [> 1.9]
Jane Forbes is our guest

- used 'in apposition' [> 1.39, 3.30]

Laura Myers, a BBC reporter asked for an interview

- used when we speak directly to somebody
Caroline shut that window will you please?

2.2 Noun endings

Some words function only as nouns (desk), others function as nouns
or verbs (work), while others function as nouns or adjectives (cold)
we cannot identify such words as nouns from their endings or
suffixes However, many nouns which are related to verbs or
adjectives have characteristic endings For example, er, added to a
verb like play, gives us the noun player, ity, added to the adjective
active, gives us the noun activity There are no easy rules to tell us
which endings to use to make nouns A dictionary can provide this
kind of information, but [> App 2]

2.3 Noun/verb contrasts

Some words can be either nouns or verbs We can often tell the
difference from the way they are stressed and pronounced