The 2^nd year,

Module 1

№ 1. Subject: Developmental anomalies of the teeth. Terminology of oral pathology.

TERMINOLOGY OF ORAL PATHOLOGY

Pathology is the study of diseases, especially of the structural and functional changes in tissues and that cause or are caused by disease. Oral pathology is that branch of pathology concerned with s of the oral cavity. Disease is a particular destructive process in an organism, usually with a specific cause and characteristic signs and symptoms. A sign is objective evidence of a disease that is table by the health care provider (e.g. redness, bleeding). A symptom is subjective evidence of a disease - in other words, what a patient tells the health care provider (e.g., pain, weakness). The word asymptomatic refers to a disease exhibiting no symptoms.

Terminology of a descriptive nature is used to define aspects of a pathological process: localized) means that the disease is restricted to a part or small area of the body. Generalized means the affects all parts of the body or covers a large area. Insipient refers to a disease or disorder that is • beginning. Severe refers to an intense distress of prolonged duration caused by the disease process are relates to a sudden onset of symptoms, generally of short duration. Chronic refers to a prolonged disease process, with symptoms generally of a constant nature.

Inflammation of tissues is a body defense mechanism that occurs regardless of the source of injury (e.g. the irritation produced by dental caries may result in inflammation of the pulp called pulpitis). The ten of inflammation is to activate all the defenses of the body and to bring them to the site of the with the purpose of overwhelming the source of the injury or irritation. The major signs and symptoms of inflammation are swelling, pain, heat, redness. Swelling is the visual sign of the accumulation of inflammatory substances (exudates) in the tissues and the increased amount of blood in area. The pressure of the exudates on the nerve endings causes pain. The redness and heat that company inflammation are due to the increased amount of blood in the area. Inflammatory involvement of the tissue may result in disturbance of function. The beneficial effects of inflammation are essentially fourfold: 1) the increased fluid dilutes the irritants present in the area; 2) the blood cells engulf often digest bacteria, dead cells, or other debris that might cause or continue the inflammation; 3) antibodies, which are also present in the oedema fluid, neutralize toxic substances; 4) clotting of the oedema fluid walls .off the area and prevents the irritants and the inflammation from spreading beyond the affected site.

Suppuration is the formation of pus. It often accompanies inflammation and retards the healing process, Pus is composed of leucocytes, broken-down cells, serum, bacteria (dead or alive) and inflammatory debris.

Abscess is a circumscribed area of pus surrounded by a restraining wall of tissue. A narrow tube or channel that often develops to afford drainage of the abscess is called a sinus track. A periapical abscess a collection of pus at the apex of the tooth. It is caused by the spread of infection through the apical foramen of the tooth to the periapical tissues. A periodontal abscess is a collection of pus along the sides I the tooth but usually not involving the apical area. It may be caused by a foreign object forced into the periodontal tissues. Abscesses are often clinically manifested by swelling.

Ulcer is an open sore other than a wound. The base of an ulcer is composed of granulation tissue (would repair tissue) resulting from the body's attempt at healing and repair.

Cellulitis occurs when inflammation is not controlled and contained within a localized area and spreads through the substance of the tissue or organ. In cellulitis, swelling usually develops rapidly in conjunction with a high fever. The skin usually becomes very red and the area is characterized by a severe throbbing pain as the inflammation localizes. The condition is often associated with periapical, periodontal, or pericoronal infections.

Repair of tissues. The process of healing is fundamentally the same in all damaged tissues. It consists of two parts: 1) the removal of inflammatory material and necrotic debris; 2) the replacement or construction of the original tissue. The process of healing involves the invasion and replacement of lying and dead tissue by immature mesenchyme called granulation tissue which consists mostly of fibroblasts and capillaries. As wound repair progresses, the fibrous and vascular cell components gradually convert into a mature tissue. Then, old epithelial cells at the wound edge proliferate to cover the new fibrous tissue surface. If the wound edges are not brought together or are exposed to irritants or infections, granulation tissue forms on the opposing surfaces and fills the space. The first step in repair is the formation of a clot which is slowly replaced by granulation tissue and a covering of epithelium. When the edges of a clean aseptic wound are closely approximated, rapidly growing connective tissue cells join the walls of the wound and proliferative epithelial cells close over the surface.

DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES OF THE TEETH

Developmental anomalies of the teeth are marked deviations from the normal standards in colour, contour, size, number, and degree of development of the teeth. Systemic as well as local factors may operate to produce these developmental disturbances. Such influences may begin before or after deciduous or permanent teeth may be involved. Usually, it is the permanent teeth that are influenced and, in all instances, only those not completely formed at the time of the disturbance.

Hypoplasia. In hypoplasia, there is a lack of development of the enamel of the tooth before its eruption. In deciduous teeth, enamel hypoplasia can be caused by a disturbance in the enamel formation before birth and, for some deciduous teeth, after birth. In permanent teeth, enamel hypoplasia can only be caused by some disturbance after birth since enamel formation of the permanent dentition begins at birth. Enamel prisms are deposited by the enamel organ in a definite pattern to form the crown of the tooth. A local disturbance may interfere with this process and result in defective development. The degree of the defect (hypoplasia) varies from mild, shallow depressions or grooves to extensive grooves or pits arranged in horizontal rows around the crown. These grooves or pits extend into the enamel as far as the dentinoenamel junction. The defect may be a lack of development of all or part of the enamel, leaving exposed dentine. Hypoplastic enamel and poorly formed dentine can be attributed to various causes or combinations of causes, such as infectious diseases (scarlet fever, measles, pneumonia), rickets, or hereditary factors. Trauma to primary teeth may cause a localized hypoplastic defect in a developing permanent tooth (called Turner's tooth). Prevention is much better than treatment. A physician who provides good health supervision (including proper treatment of infant disease) and good nutrition are the keys to prevention.

Anodontia, which means absence of teeth, is an anomaly in which the enamel organ fails to form. Some (partial anodontia) or all (total anodontia) of the teeth may fail to develop. Cases in which only part of the tooth fails to develop are considered forms of hypoplasia.

Enamel hypocalcification. Defective development of the enamel matrix may cause hypocalcification. This implies a poor quality of enamel although the amount is normal. The enamel may be chalky, crumble easily, and contain white or brown areas or spots. Dental fluorosis is a form of hypocalcification.

Mottled enamel, or dental fluorosis, is a form of enamel hypocalcification which results from the ingestion of excessive fluoride during the period of enamel formation. To cause mottling, fluoride must be present in concentrations several times that found in controlled fluoridated water supplies. The mottling of enamel varies in extent and severity, depending on the amount of fluoride in the water and the duration of usage. In mild cases, the enamel is opaque but of good structure. In severe cases, it may be chalky and crumble easily. The area of involvement varies from spots on a few teeth to extensive mottling of many teeth. The mottled areas may have a white, opaque appearance or they may have a stained appearance ranging from yellowish-brown to dark-brown. This condition is significant because it makes teeth unsightly. Superficial bleaching and acid etch composite may be used to correct the condition. Severe cases may require porcelain veneers or crowns.

Supernumerary teeth. Dental hyperplasia may result in additional enamel organs being formed, resulting in development of teeth beyond the normal number. Hyperplasia is defined as an increase in the number of individual tissue elements. This may also account for supernumerary cusps or roots within the normal complement of teeth. The vast majority of supernumerary teeth occur in the maxilla, with the most common being a mesiodens (a tooth located between the permanent maxillary central incisors).

Dens in dente. In this condition, during the developmental state, a tooth within the original tooth is formed. The new tooth is usually composed of enamel and sometimes includes dentine and cementum.

Concrescence. In this condition, after the roots are developed, cementum is deposited between two adjoining teeth and joins them together. Only the roots are united. The crowns are always separate.

Fusion. In this condition, two developing and adjoining teeth join to form a single large crown. Fusion may occur between two normal adjoining teeth or between a normal tooth and a supernumerary tooth. Fusion may involve the crown and root (total fusion) or the roots may be separate. Usually there are two distinct pulp chambers. In fusion of the root, the dentin of the two teeth is continuous as opposed to concrescence.

Gemination. In gemination, or twin formation, a double crown is attached to a single root. The crown appears twice as wide as normal with a shallow groove through the center.

GENERAL

Developmental anomalies of teeth are marked deviations from the normal standards in color, contour, size, number, and degree of development of the teeth. Systemic as well as local factors may operate to produce these developmental disturbances. Such influences may begin before or after birth so that either deciduous or permanent teeth may be involved. Usually, it is the permanent teeth that are influenced and, in all instances, only those not completely formed at the time of the disturbance.

HYPOPLASIA (Figure 1)

In hypoplasia, there is a lack of development or a defective development of the enamel of the tooth before its eruption. In deciduous teeth, enamel hypoplasia can be caused by a disturbance in the enamel formation before birth and, for some deciduous teeth, after birth. In permanent teeth, enamel hypoplasia can only be caused by some disturbance after birth since enamel formation of the permanent dentition begins at

birth. Enamel prisms are deposited by the enamel organ in a definite pattern to form the crown of the tooth. A local disturbance may interfere with this process and result in defective development. The degree of the defect (hypoplasia) varies from mild, shallow depressions or grooves to extensive grooves or pits arranged in horizontal rows around the crown. These grooves or pits extend into the enamel as far as the dentinoenamel junction. The defect may be a lack of development of all or part of the enamel, leaving exposed dentin. Hypoplastic enamel and poorly formed dentin can be attributed to various causes or combinations of causes, such as infectious diseases (scarlet fever, measles, pneumonia), rickets, or hereditary factors. Trauma to primary teeth may cause a localized hypoplastic defect in a developing permanent tooth (called Turner's tooth). Prevention is much better than treatment. A physician who provides good health supervision (including proper treatment of infant disease) and good nutrition are the keys to prevention.

Figure 1. Enamel hypoplasia.

NOTE: Interruption of the enamel developmental process results in irregular enamel formation or lack of enamel formation. Restorative treatment may be required because of susceptibility to decay and to improve appearance.

ANODONTIA

Anodontia, which means absence of teeth, is an anomaly in which the enamel organ fails to form. Some (partial anodontia) or all (total anodontia) of the teeth may fail to develop. Cases in which only part of the tooth fails to form are considered forms of hypoplasia.

ENAMEL HYPOCALCIFICATION

Defective development of the enamel matrix may cause hypocalcification. This implies a poor quality of enamel although the amount is normal. The enamel may be chalky, crumble easily, and contain white or brown areas or spots. Dental fluorosis is a form of hypocalcification.

MOTTLED ENAMEL

Mottled enamel, or dental fluorosis, is a form of enamel hypocalcification which results from the ingestion of excessive fluoride during the period of enamel formation. To cause mottling, fluoride must be present in concentrations several times that found in controlled fluoridated water supplies. The mottling of enamel varies in extent and severity, depending on the amount of fluoride in the water and how long it was routinely used. In mild cases, the enamel is opaque but of good structure. In severe cases, it may be chalky and crumble easily. The area of involvement varies from spots on a few teeth to extensive mottling of many teeth. The mottled areas may have a white, opaque appearance or they may have a stained appearance ranging from yellowish-brown to dark-brown. This condition is significant because it makes teeth unsightly. Superficial bleaching and acid etch composite may be used to correct the condition. Severe cases may require porcelain veneers or crowns.

Figure 2. Mottled enamel.

NOTE: When teeth are discolored by fluoride, treatment may be required to improve appearance.

SUPERNUMERARY TEETH (Figures 3 and 4)

Dental hyperplasia may result in additional enamel organs being formed, resulting in development of teeth beyond the normal number (32 permanent teeth). Hyperplasia is defined as an increase in the number of individual tissue elements. This may also account for supernumerary cusps or roots within the normal complement of teeth; see figure 2-16. The vast majority of supernumerary teeth occur in the maxilla, with the most common being a mesiodens (a tooth located between the permanent maxillary central incisors); see figure 2-17.

Figure 3. Supernumerary teeth, premolar.

NOTE: This radiograph reveals a developing supernumerary (third) premolar.

Figure 4. Supernumerary teeth, mesiodens.

NOTE: A mesiodens is in evidence between the two normal central incisors. Note its conical shape. Malposition of teeth and generalized gingivitis are other features of this example.

OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALIES

a.      Dens in Dente. In this condition, during the developmental state, a tooth within the original tooth is formed. The new tooth is usually composed of enamel and sometimes includes dentin and cementum.

b.      Concrescence. In this condition, after the roots are developed, cementum is deposited between two adjoining teeth and joins them together. Only the roots are united. The crowns are always separate.

c.      Fusion. In this condition, two developing and adjoining teeth join to form a single large crown. Fusion may occur between two normal adjoining teeth or between a normal tooth and a supernumerary tooth. Fusion may involve the crown and root (total fusion) or the roots may be separate. Usually there are two distinct pulp chambers. In fusion of the root, the dentin of the two teeth is continuous as opposed to concrescence.

d.      Gemination. In gemination, or twin formation, a double crown is attached to a single root. The crown appears twice as wide as normal with a shallow groove through the center.

e.      Enamel Pearls (Enamel Drops). In this condition, small islands of enamel 1 to 2 mm in diameter are located on the root surface close to the cementoenamel junction. If covered by cementum, they probably will not be noticed on the extracted tooth except histologically. They are of significance only as potential problems in development of periodontal lesions.

VIDEO

ANOMALIES

Glossary of Dental Health Terms

abscess: an infection of a tooth, soft tissue, or bone.

abutment: tooth or teeth on either side of a missing tooth that support a fixed or removable bridge.

acrylic resin: the plastic widely used in dentistry.

ADA Seal of Acceptance: a designation awarded to products that have met American Dental Association's criteria for safety and effectiveness and whose packaging and advertising claims are scientifically supported.

adjustment: a modification made upon a dental prosthesis after it has been completed and inserted into the mouth.

air abrasion/micro abrasion: a drill-free technique that blasts the tooth surface with air and an abrasive. This is a relatively new technology that may avoid the need for an anesthetic and can be used to remove tooth decay, old composite restorations and superficial stains and discolorations, and prepare a tooth surface for bonding or sealants.

alveolar bone: the bone surrounding the root of the tooth, anchoring it in place; loss of this bone is typically associated with severe periodontal (gum) disease.

amalgam: a common filling material used to repair cavities. The material, also known as "silver fillings," contains mercury in combination with silver, tin, copper, and sometimes zinc.

anaerobic bacteria: bacteria that do not need oxygen to grow; they are generally associated with periodontal disease (see below).

analgesia: a state of pain relief; an agent for lessening pain.

anesthesia: a type of medication that results in partial or complete elimination of pain sensation; numbing a tooth is an example of local anesthesia; general anesthesia produces partial or complete unconsciousness.

antibiotic: a drug that stops or slows the growth of bacteria.

antiseptic: a chemical agent that can be applied to living tissues to destroy germs.

apex: the tip of the root of a tooth.

appliance: any removable dental restoration or orthodontic device.

arch: a description of the alignment of the upper or lower teeth.

baby bottle tooth decay: decay in infants and children, most often affecting the upper front teeth, caused by sweetened liquids given and left clinging to the teeth for long periods (for example, in feeding bottles or pacifiers). Also called early childhood carries.

bicuspid: the fourth and fifth teeth from the center of the mouth to the back of the mouth. These are the back teeth that are used for chewing; they only have two points (cusps). Adults have eight bicuspids (also called premolars), two in front of each group of molars.

biofeedback: a relaxation technique that involves learning how to better cope with pain and stress by altering behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

biopsy: removal of a small piece of tissue for diagnostic examination.

bite: relationship of the upper and lower teeth upon closure (occlusion).

bite-wing: a single X-ray that shows upper and lower teeth teeth (from crown to about the level of the supporting bone) in a select area on the same film.

bleaching: chemical or laser treatment of natural teeth that uses peroxide to produce the whitening effect.

bonding: the covering of a tooth surface with a tooth-colored composite to repair and/or change the color or shape of a tooth, for instance, due to stain or damage.

bone resorption: decrease in the amount of bone supporting the roots of teeth; a common result of periodontal (gum) disease.

braces: devices (bands, wires, ceramic appliances) put in place by orthodontists to gradually reposition teeth to a more favorable alignment.

bridge: stationary dental prosthesis (appliance) fixed to teeth adjacent to a space; replaces one or more missing teeth, cemented or bonded to supporting teeth or implants adjacent to the space. Also called a fixed partial denture.

bruxism: grinding or gnashing of the teeth, most commonly during sleep.

calcium: an element needed for the development of healthy teeth, bones, and nerves.

calculus: hard, calcium-like deposits that form on teeth due to inadequate plaque control, often stained yellow or brown. Also called "tartar."

canker sore: sores or small shallow ulcers that appear in the mouth and often make eating and talking uncomfortable; they typically appear in people between the ages of 10 and 20 and last about a week in duration before disappearing.

cap: common term for a dental crown.

caries: tooth decay or "cavities." A dental infection caused by toxins produced by bacteria.

cementum: hard tissue that covers the roots of teeth.

clasp: device that holds a removable partial denture to stationary teeth.

cleaning: removal of plaque and calculus (tarter) from teeth, generally above the gum line.

cleft lip: a physical split or separation of the two sides of the upper lip that appears as a narrow opening or gap in the skin of the upper lip. This separation often extends beyond the base of the nose and includes the bones of the upper jaw and/or upper gum.

cleft palate: a split or opening in the roof of the mouth.

composite resin filling: tooth-colored restorative material composed of plastic with small glass or ceramic particles; usually "cured" or hardened with filtered light or chemical catalyst. An alternative to silver amalgam fillings.

conventional denture: a denture that is ready for placement in the mouth about eight to 12 weeks after the teeth have been removed.

cosmetic (aesthetic) dentistry: a branch of dentistry under which treatments are performed to enhance the color and shape of teeth.

crown: (1) the portion of a tooth above the gum line that is covered by enamel; (2) dental restoration covering all or most of the natural tooth; the artificial cap can be made of porcelain, composite, or metal and is cemented on top of the damaged tooth.

cuspids: the third tooth from the center of the mouth to the back of the mouth. These are the front teeth that have one rounded or pointed edge used for biting. Also known as canines.

cusps: the high points on the chewing surfaces of the back teeth.

cyst: an abnormal sac containing gas, fluid, or a semisolid material.

DDS: Doctor of Dental Surgery -- equivalent to DMD, Doctor of Dental Medicine.

decay: destruction of tooth structure caused by toxins produced by bacteria.

deciduous teeth: commonly called "baby teeth" or primary teeth; the first set of (usually) 20 teeth.

demineralization: loss of mineral from tooth enamel just below the surface in a carious lesion; usually appears as a white area on the tooth surface.

dentin: inner layer of tooth structure, immediately under the surface enamel.

denture: a removable replacement of artificial teeth for missing natural teeth and surrounding tissues. Two types of dentures are available -- complete and partial. Complete dentures are used when all the teeth are missing, while partial dentures are used when some natural teeth remain.

DMD: Doctor of Medical Dentistry; equivalent to DDS, Doctor of Dental Surgery.

dry mouth: a condition in which the flow of saliva is reduced and there is not enough saliva to keep the mouth moist. Dry mouth can be the result of certain medications (such as antihistamines and decongestants), certain diseases (such as Sjögren's syndrome, HIV/AIDS, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes), certain medical treatments (such as head and neck radiation), as well as nerve damage, dehydration, tobacco use, and surgical removal of the salivary glands. Also called xerostomia.

dry socket: a common complication that occurs when either a blood clot has failed to form in an extracted tooth socket or else the blood clot that did form has been dislodged.

edentulous: having no teeth.

enamel: the hard, mineralized material that covers the outside portion of the tooth that lies above the gum line (the crown).

endodontics: a field of dentistry concerned with the biology and pathology of the dental pulp and root tissues of the tooth and with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and injuries of these tissues. A root canal is a commonly performed endodontic procedure.

endodontist: a dental specialist concerned with the causes, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and injuries of the human dental pulp or the nerve of the tooth.

eruption: the emergence of the tooth from its position in the jaw.

extraction: removal of a tooth.

filling: restoration of lost tooth structure with metal, porcelain, or resin materials.

fistula: channel emanating pus from an infection site; a gum boil.

flap surgery: lifting of gum tissue to expose and clean underlying tooth and bone structures.

flossing: a thread-like material used to clean between the contact areas of teeth; part of a good daily oral hygiene plan.

fluoride: a mineral that helps strengthen teeth enamel making teeth less susceptible to decay. Fluoride is ingested through food or water, is available in most toothpastes, or can be applied as a gel or liquid to the surface of teeth by a dentist.

fluorosis: discoloration of the enamel due to too much fluoride ingestion (greater than one part per million) into the bloodstream, also called enamel mottling.

general dentist: the primary care dental provider. This dentist diagnoses, treats, and manages overall oral health care needs, including gum care, root canals, fillings, crowns, veneers, bridges, and preventive education.

gingiva: the soft tissue that surrounds the base of the teeth; the pink tissue around the teeth.

gingivectomy: surgical removal of gum tissue.

gingivitis: inflamed, swollen, and reddish gum tissue that may bleed easily when touched or brushed. It is the first step in a series of events that begins with plaque build up in the mouth and may end -- if not properly treated -- with periodontitis and tooth loss due to destruction of the tissue that surrounds and supports the teeth.

gingivoplasty: a procedure performed by periodontists to reshape the gum tissue.

gold fillings: an alternative to silver amalgam fillings.

gum recession: exposure of dental roots due to shrinkage of the gums as a result of abrasion, periodontal disease, or surgery.

gutta percha: material used in the filling of root canals.

halitosis: bad breath of oral or gastrointestinal origin.

handpiece: the instrument used to hold and revolve burs in dental operations.

hard palate: the bony front portion of the roof of the mouth.

hygienist: a licensed, auxiliary dental professional who is both an oral health educator and clinician who uses preventive, therapeutic, and educational methods to control oral disease.

hypersensitivity: a sharp, sudden painful reaction in teeth when exposed to hot, cold, sweet, sour, salty, chemical, or mechanical stimuli.

immediate denture: a complete or partial denture that is made in advance and can be positioned as soon as the natural teeth are removed.

impacted tooth: a tooth that is partially or completely blocked from erupting through the surface of the gum. An impacted tooth may push other teeth together or damage the bony structures supporting the adjacent tooth. Often times, impacted teeth must be surgically removed.

implant: a metal rod (usually made of titanium) that is surgically placed into the upper or lower jawbone where a tooth is missing; it serves as the tooth root and anchor for the crown, bridge, or denture that is placed over it.

impression: mold made of the teeth and soft tissues.

incision and drainage: surgical incision of an abscess to drain pus.

incisors: four upper and four lower front teeth, excluding the cuspids (canine teeth). These teeth are used primarily for biting and cutting.

inlay: similar to a filling but the entire work lies within the cusps (bumps) on the chewing surface of the tooth.

jawbone: The hard bone that supports the face and includes alveolar bone, which anchors the teeth.

leukoplakia: a white or gray patch that develops on the tongue or the inside of the cheek. It is the mouth's reaction to chronic irritation of the mucous membranes of the mouth.

malocclusion: "bad bite" or misalignment of the teeth or jaws.

mandible: the lower jaw.

maxilla: the upper jaw.

mercury: a metal component of amalgam fillings.

molars: three back teeth in each dental quadrant used for grinding food.

mouth guard: a soft-fitted device that is inserted into the mouth and worn over the teeth to protect them against impact or injury.

muscle relaxant: a type of medication often prescribed to reduce stress.

nerve: tissue that conveys sensation, temperature, and position information to the brain.

nerve (root) canal: dental pulp; the internal chamber of a tooth where the nerves and blood vessels pass.

night guard: a removable acrylic appliance that fits over the upper and lower teeth used to prevent wear and temporomandibular damage caused by grinding or gnashing of the teeth during sleep.

nitrous oxide: a gas (also called laughing gas) used to reduce patient anxiety.

NSAID: a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, often used as a dental analgesic.

occlusal X-rays: an X-ray showing full tooth development and placement. Each X-ray reveals the entire arch of teeth in either the upper or lower jaw.

occlusion: the relationship of the upper and lower teeth when the mouth is closed.

onlay: a type of restoration (filling) made of metal, porcelain, or acrylic that is more extensive than an inlay in that it covers one or more cusps. Onlays are sometimes called partial crowns.

oral cavity: the mouth.

oral and maxillofacial radiologist: the oral health care provider who specializes in the production and interpretation of all types of X-ray images and data that are used in the diagnosis and management of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral and maxillofacial region.

oral and maxillofacial surgery: surgical procedures on the mouth including extractions, removal of cysts or tumors, and repair of fractured jaws.

oral hygiene: process of maintaining cleanliness of the teeth and related structures.

oral medicine: the specialty of dentistry that provides for the care of the medically complex patient through the integration of medicine and oral health care.

oral pathologist: the oral health care provider who studies the causes of diseases that alter or affect the oral structures (teeth, lips, cheeks, jaws) as well as parts of the face and neck.

oral surgeon: the oral health care provider who performs many types of surgical procedures in and around the entire face, mouth, and jaw area.

orthodontics: dental specialty that using braces, retainers, and other dental devices to treat misalignment of teeth, restoring them to proper functioning.

orthodontist: the oral health provider who specializes in diagnosis, prevention, interception, and treatment of malocclusions, or "bad bites," of the teeth and surrounding structures. This is the specialist whose responsibility it is to straighten teeth by movement of the teeth through bone by the use of bands, wires, braces, and other fixed or removable corrective appliances or retainers.

overbite: an excessive protrusion of the upper jaw resulting in a vertical overlap of the front teeth.

overjet: an excessive protrusion of the upper jaw resulting in a horizontal overlap of the front teeth.

overdenture: denture that fits over residual roots or dental implants.

palate: hard and soft tissue forming the roof of the mouth.

panoramic X-ray: a type of X-ray that shows a complete two dimensional representation of all the teeth in the mouth. This X-ray also shows the relationship of the teeth to the jaws and the jaws to the head.

partial denture: a removable appliance that replaces some of the teeth in either the upper or lower jaw.

pathology: study of disease.

pedodontics or pediatric dentistry: dental specialty focusing on treatment of infants, children, and young adults.

pedodontist/pediatric dentist: the oral health care provider who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of the dental problems of children from infancy to young adulthood. This provider also usually cares for special needs patients.

periapical: region at the end of the roots of teeth.

periapical X-rays: X-rays providing complete side views from the roots to the crowns of the teeth.

periodontal ligament: The connective tissue that surrounds the tooth (specifically covering the cementum) and connects the tooth to the jawbone, holding it in place.

periodontist: the dental specialist who specializes in diagnosing, treating, and preventing diseases of the soft tissues of the mouth (the gums) and the supporting structures (bones) of the teeth (both natural and man-made teeth).

periodontitis: a more advanced stage of periodontal disease in which the inner layer of the gum and bone pull away from the teeth and form pockets and alveolar bone is destroyed.

periodontium: The tissue that lines the socket into which the root of the tooth fits.

permanent teeth: the teeth that replace the deciduous or primary teeth -- also called baby teeth. There are (usually) 32 adult teeth in a complete dentition.

plaque: a colorless, sticky film composed of undigested food particles mixed with saliva and bacteria that constantly forms on the teeth. Plaque left alone eventually turns in to tartar or calculus and is the main factor in causing dental caries and periodontal disease.

pontic: a replacement tooth mounted on a fixed or removal appliance.

porcelain: a tooth-colored, sand-like material; much like enamel in appearance.

porcelain crown: all porcelain restoration covering the coronal portion of tooth (above the gum line).

porcelain fused to metal (PFM) crown: restoration with metal caping (for strength) covered by porcelain (for appearance).

porcelain inlay or onlay: tooth-colored restoration made of porcelain, cemented or bonded in place.

post: thin metal rod inserted into the root of a tooth after root canal therapy; provides retention for a capping that replaces lost tooth structure.

pregnancy gingivitis: gingivitis that develops during pregnancy. The hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy -- especially the increased level of progesterone -- may make it easier for certain gingivitis-causing bacteria to grow as well as make gum tissue more sensitive to plaque and exaggerate the body's response to the toxins (poisons) that result from plaque.

pregnancy tumors: an extreme inflammatory reaction to a local irritation (such as food particles or plaque) that occurs in up to 10% of pregnant women and often in women who also have pregnancy gingivitis. Pregnancy tumors appear on inflamed gum tissue as large lumps with deep red pinpoint markings on it, usually near the upper gum line. The red lump glistens, may bleed and crust over, and can make eating and speaking difficult and cause discomfort.

primary teeth: the first set of 20 temporary teeth. Also called baby teeth, the primary dentition, or deciduous teeth, normally fall out one by one between 6 and 12 years of age.

prophylaxis: the cleaning of the teeth for the prevention of periodontal disease and tooth decay.

prosthetics: a fixed or removable appliance used to replace missing teeth (for example, bridges, partials, and dentures).

prosthodontist: a dental specialist who is skilled in restoring or replacing teeth with fixed or removable prostheses (appliances), maintaining proper occlusion; treats facial deformities with artificial prostheses such as eyes, ears, and noses.

pulp: the living part of the tooth, located inside the dentin. Pulp contains the nerve tissue and blood vessels that supply nutrients to the tooth.

radiographic: refers to X-rays.

radio wave therapy: a therapy involving the use of low level electrical stimulation to increase blood flow and provide pain relief. In dentistry, this is one type of therapy that can be applied to the joint of individuals with temporomandibular disorder.

recontouring: a procedure in which small amounts of tooth enamel are removed to change a tooth's length, shape, or surface. Also called odontoplasty, enameloplasty, stripping, or slenderizing.

remineralization: redeposition or replacement of the tooth's minerals into a demineralized (previously decayed) lesion. This reverses the decay process, and is enhanced by the presence of topical fluoride.

restorations: any replacement for lost tooth structure or teeth; for example, bridges, dentures, fillings, crowns, and implants.

retainer: a removable appliance used to maintain teeth in a given position (usually worn at night).

root: tooth structure that connects the tooth to the jaw.

root canal therapy: procedure used to save an abscessed tooth in which the pulp chamber is cleaned out, disinfected, and filled with a permanent filling.

rubber dam: soft latex or vinyl sheet used to establish isolation of one or more teeth from contamination by oral fluids and to keep materials from falling to the back of the throat.

saliva: clear lubricating fluid in the mouth containing water, enzymes, bacteria, mucus, viruses, blood cells and undigested food particles.

salivary glands: glands located under tongue and in cheeks that produce saliva.

scaling and root planing: a deep-cleaning, nonsurgical procedure whereby plaque and tartar from above and below the gum line are scraped away (scaling) and rough spots on the tooth root are made smooth (planing).

sealants: a thin, clear or white resin substance that is applied to the biting surfaces of teeth to prevent decay.

sedative: a type of medication used to reduce pain and anxiety, and create a state of relaxation.

soft palate: the back one-third of the roof of the mouth composed of soft tissue.

space maintainer: dental device that holds the space lost through premature loss of baby teeth.

stains: can be either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic stain is located on the outside of the tooth surface originating from external substances such as tobacco, coffee, tea, or food; usually removed by polishing the teeth with an abrasive prophylaxis paste. Intrinsic stain originates from the ingestion of certain materials or chemical substances during tooth development, or from the presence of caries. This stain is permanent and cannot be removed.

stomatitis: an inflammation of the tissue underlying a denture. Ill-fitting dentures, poor dental hygiene, or a buildup of the fungus Candida albicans can cause the condition.

supernumerary tooth: an extra tooth.

tartar: common term for dental calculus, a hard deposit that adheres to teeth; produces rough surface that attracts plaque.

teething: baby teeth pushing through the gums.

temporomandibular disorder (TMD)/temporomandibular joint (TMJ): the term given to a problem that concerns the muscles and joint that connect the lower jaw with the skull. The condition is characterized by facial pain and restricted ability to open or move the jaw. It is often accompanied by a clicking or popping sound when the jaw is opened or closed.

thrush: an infection in the mouth caused by the fungus Candida.

tooth whitening: a chemical or laser process to lighten the color of teeth.

topical anesthetic: ointment that produces mild anesthesia when applied to a soft tissue surface.

transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS): a therapy that uses low-level electrical currents to provide pain relief. In dentistry, TENS is one type of therapy that can be used to relax the jaw joint and facial muscles.

transplant: placing a natural tooth in the empty socket of another tooth.

trauma: injury caused by external force, chemical, temperature extremes, or poor tooth alignment.

trigger-point injections: a method of relieving pain whereby pain medication or anesthesia is injected into tender muscles called "trigger points." In dentistry, this can be used in individuals with temporomandibular disorders.

ultrasound: a treatment in which deep heat is applied to an affected area to relieve soreness or improve mobility. In dentistry, ultrasound can be used to treat temporomandibular disorders.

underbite: when the lower jaw protrudes forward causing the lower jaw and teeth to extend out beyond the upper teeth.

unerupted tooth: a tooth that has not pushed through the gum and assumed its correct position in the dental arch.

veneer: a thin, custom-made shell of tooth-colored plastic or porcelain that is bonded directly to the front side of natural teeth to improve their appearance -- for example, to replace lost tooth structure, close spaces, straighten teeth, or change color and/or shape.

wisdom teeth: third (last) molars that usually erupt at age 18-25.

xerostomia: dry mouth or decrease in the production of saliva.

X-rays: high frequency light (or radiation) that penetrates different substances with different rates and absorption. In dentistry, there are typically four types of X-rays: periapical, bite-wing, occlusal, and panoramic.

What is a Noun?

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:

Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.

Portia White was an opera singer.

The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.

According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.

Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

Noun Gender

Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.

David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.

Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.

The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"

Noun Plurals

Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:

When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.

Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.

As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an unexpected echo.

I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.

He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.

Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.

There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences:

The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.

There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.

Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.

The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.

The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"

The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.

Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.

Possessive Nouns

In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:

The red suitcase is Cassandra's.

The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.

The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.

The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:

The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.

The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.

Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:

The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.

The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.

Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.

The men's hockey team will be play as soon as the women's team is finished.

The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:

The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.

The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.

The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.

Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates.

Using Possessive Nouns

When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:

The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.

The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.

In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."

The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.

In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."

My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.

In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."

Types Of Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.

If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.

Proper Nouns

You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun

In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:

The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.

Many people dread Monday mornings.

Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.

Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.

Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.

Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.

In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:

According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.

All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.

I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.

The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.

Many child-care workers are underpaid.

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:

The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.

The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.

Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.

The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.

Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:

The judge handed the files to the clerk.

Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.

The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.

As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.

The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.

Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.

Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.

Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:

We painted the table red and the chairs blue.

Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.

Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.

The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.

Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:

Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.

Oxygen is essential to human life.

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."

We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.

You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.

The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.

Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."

The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.

You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.

Gravel is more expensive than I thought.

Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:

The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

The collective noun "geese" takes the singular verb "spends."

The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb "is dining."

The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.

Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."

The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was startled".

What is a Verb?

The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.

In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:

Dracula bites his victims on the neck.

The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.

In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.

Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.

My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.

In this sentence, the verb "was" (the simple past tense of "is") identifies a particular person and the verb "remembered" describes a mental action.

Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were destroyed.

In this sentence, the compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action which took place in the past.

Verbs in the English language are a lexically and morphologically distinct part of speech which describes an action, an event, or a state.

While English has many irregular verbs, for the regular ones the conjugation rules are quite straightforward. Being part of an analytic language, English regular verbs are not very much inflected; all tenses, aspects and moods except the simple present and the simple past are periphrastic, formed with auxiliary verbs and modals.

Principal parts

A regular English verb has only one principal part, the infinitive or dictionary form (which is identical to the simple present tense for all persons and numbers except the third person singular). All other forms of a regular verb can be derived straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of four forms (e.g. exist, exists, existed, existing)

English irregular verbs (except to be) have at most three principal parts:

	Part	Example:
1	infinitive	write
2	preterite	Wrote
3	past participle	Written

Strong verbs like write have all three distinct parts, for a total of five forms (e. g. write, writes, wrote, written, writing). The more irregular weak verbs also require up to three forms to be learned.

The highly irregular copular verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been, of which only one is derivable from a principal part (being is derived from be). On the history of this verb, see Indo-European copula.

Verbs had more forms when the pronoun thou was still in regular use and there was a number distinction in the second person. To be, for instance, had art, wast and wert.

Most of the strong verbs that survive in modern English are considered irregular. Irregular verbs in English come from several historical sources; some are technically strong verbs (i. e. their forms display specific vowel changes of the type known as ablaut in linguistics); others have had various phonetic changes or contractions added to them over the history of English.

Infinitive and basic form

Formation

The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word. When it is being used as a verbal noun, the particle to is usually prefixed to it. When the infinitive stands as the predicate of an auxiliary verb, to may be omitted, depending on the requirements of the idiom.

Uses

· The infinitive, in English, is one of two verbal nouns: To write is to learn.

· The infinitive, either marked with to or unmarked, is used as the complement of many auxiliary verbs: I will write a novel about talking beavers; I am really going to write it.

· The basic form also forms the English imperative mood: Write these words!

· The basic form makes the English subjunctive mood: If you write it, they will read.

Third person singular

Formation

The third person singular in regular verbs in English is distinguished by the suffix -s. In English spelling, this -s is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run → runs.

If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ (see IPA) that is not followed by a silent E, the suffix is written -es: buzz → buzzes; catch → catches.

If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to an i and -es is affixed to the end: cry → cries.

Verbs ending in o typically add -es: veto → vetoes.

In Early Modern English, some dialects distinguished the third person singular with the suffix -th; after consonants this was written -eth, and some consonants were doubled when this was added: run → runneth.

Use

· The third person singular is used exclusively in the third person form of the English simple "present tense", which often has other uses besides the simple present: He writes airport novels about anthropomorphic rodents.

Exception

English preserves a number of preterite-present verbs, such as can and may. These verbs lack a separate form for the third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving preterite-present verbs in modern English are auxiliary verbs. The verb will, although historically not a preterite-present verb, has come to be inflected like one when used as an auxiliary; it adds -s in the third person singular only when it is a full verb: Whatever she wills to happen will make life annoying for everyone else.

Present participle

Formation

The present participle is made by the suffix -ing: go → going.

If the base ends in silent e, it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe → believing.

If the e is not silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing.

If the base ends in -ie, change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying.

If:

· the base form ends in a single consonant; and

· a single vowel precedes that consonant; and

· the last syllable of the base form is stressed

then the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix: set → setting; occur → occurring.

In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to doubling even when the last syllable is not stressed: yodel → yodelling, travel → travelling; in American English, these follow the rule: yodeling, traveling. Similarly focus → focussing (AE focusing).

Irregular forms include:

· singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not dropped to avoid confusion with singing;

· ageing, in British English, where the expected form aging is ambiguous as to whether it has a hard or soft g;

· words ending in -c, which add k before the -ing, for example, panicking, frolicking, and bivouacking.

· a number of words that are subject to the doubling rule even though they do not fall squarely within its terms, such as diagramming, kidnapping, programming, and worshipping.

Uses

· The present participle is another English verbal noun: Writing is learning (see gerund for this sense).

· It is used as an adjective: a writing desk; building beavers.

· It is used to form a past, present or future tense with progressive or imperfective force: He is writing another long book about beavers.

· It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried writing about opossums instead, but his muse deserted him.

Preterite

Formation

In weak verbs, the preterite is formed with the suffix -ed: work → worked.

If the base ends in e, -d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye > dyed.

Where the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the -ed is added; deny → denied.

Where the base ends in a vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy → alloyed.

The rule for doubling the final consonant in regular weak verbs for the preterite is the same as the rule for doubling in the present participle; see above.

Many strong verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite differently, for which see that article.

Use

· The preterite is used for the English simple (non-iterative or progressive) past tense. He wrote two more chapters about the dam at Kashawigamog Lake.

Past participle

Formation

In regular weak verbs, the past participle is always the same as the preterite.

Irregular verbs may have separate preterites and past participles; see Wiktionary appendix: Irregular English verbs.

Uses

· The past participle is used with the auxiliary have for the English perfect tenses: They have written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent of the lodge... (With verbs of motion, an archaic form with be may be found in older texts: he is come.)

· With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what it's like to gnaw down trees!

· It is used as an adjective: the written word; a broken dam.

· It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: 500,000 words got written in record time.

Tenses of the English verb

English verbs, like those in many other western European languages, have more tenses than forms; tenses beyond the ones possible with the five forms listed above are formed with auxiliary verbs, as are the passive voice forms of these verbs. Important auxiliary verbs in English include will, used to form the future tense; shall, formerly used mainly for the future tense, but now used mainly for commands and directives; be, have, and do, which are used to form the supplementary tenses of the English verb, to add aspect to the actions they describe, or for negation.

English verbs display complex forms of negation. While simple negation was used well into the period of early Modern English (Touch not the royal person!) in contemporary English negation almost always requires that the negative particle be attached to an auxiliary verb such as do or be. I go not is archaic; I don't go or I am not going are what the contemporary idiom requires.

English exhibits similar idiomatic complexity with the interrogative mood, which in Indo-European languages is not, strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western European languages, English historically allowed questions to be asked by inverting the position of verb and subject: Whither goest thou? Now, in English, questions are trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary verbs.

Overview of tenses

In English grammar, tense refers to any conjugated form expressing time, aspect or mood. The large number of different composite verb forms means that English has the richest and subtlest system of tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be confusing for foreign learners; however, the English verb is in fact very systematic once one understands that in each of the three time spheres - past, present and future - English has a basic tense which can then be made either perfect or progressive (continuous) or both.

	Simple	Progressive	Perfect	Perfect progressive
Future	I will write	I will be writing	I will have written	I will have been writing
Present	I write	I am writing	I have written	I have been writing
Past	I wrote	I was writing	I had written	I had been writing

Because of the neatness of this system, modern textbooks on English generally use the terminology in this table. What was traditionally called the "perfect" is here called "present perfect" and the "pluperfect" becomes "past perfect", in order to show the relationships of the perfect forms to their respective simple forms. Whereas in other Germanic languages, or in Old English, the "perfect" is just a past tense, the English "present perfect" has a present reference; it is both a past tense and a present tense, describing the connection between a past event and a present state.

However, historical linguists sometimes prefer terminology which applies to all Germanic languages and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when describing wrote as a historical form, for example, we would say "preterite" rather than "past simple".

This table, of course, omits a number of forms which can be regarded as additional to the basic system:

· the intensive present I do write

· the intensive past I did write

· the habitual past I used to write

· the "shall future" I shall write

· the "going-to future" I am going to write

· the "future in the past" I was going to write

· the conditional I would write

· the perfect conditional I would have written

· the (increasingly seldom used) subjunctives, if I be, if I were.

Some systems of English grammar eliminate the future tense altogether, treating will/would simply as modal verbs, in the same category as other modal verbs such as can/could and may/might. See Grammatical tense for a more technical discussion of this subject.

A full inventory of verb forms follows.

Present simple

Or simple present.

· Affirmative: I write; He writes

· Negative: He does not (doesn't) write

· Interrogative: Does he write?

· Negative interrogative: Does he not write? (Doesn't he write?)

Note that the "simple present" in idiomatic English often identifies habitual or customary action:

He writes about beavers (understanding that he does so all the time.)

It is used with stative verbs:

She thinks beavers are remarkable

It can also have a future meaning (though much less commonly than in many other languages):

She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday.

Put Tuesday in the plural, and She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesdays means that she goes to Milwaukee every Tuesday.

The present simple has an intensive or emphatic form with "do": He does write. In the negative and interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the non-emphatic forms. It is typically used as a response to the question Does he write, whether that question is expressed or implied, and says that indeed, he does write.

The idiomatic use of the negative particles not and -n't in the interrogative form is also worth noting. In formal literary English of the sort in which contractions are avoided, not attaches itself to the main verb: Does he not write? When the colloquial contraction -n't is used, this attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn't he write? This in fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still occasionally found in poetry: *Does not he write?

Present progressive

Or present continuous.

· Affirmative: He is writing

· Negative: He is not writing

· Interrogative: Is he writing?

· Negative interrogative: Is he not writing? (Isn't he writing?)

This form describes the simple engagement in a present activity, with the focus on action in progress "at this very moment". It too can indicate a future, particularly when discussing plans already in place: I am flying to Paris tomorrow. Used with "always" it suggests irritation; compare He always does that (neutral) with He's always doing that. Word order differs here in the negative interrogative between the hyperformal is he not writing and the usual isn't he writing?

Present perfect

Traditionally just called the perfect.

· Affirmative: He has written

· Negative: He has not written

· Interrogative: Has he written?

· Negative interrogative: Has he not written? (Hasn't he written?)

This indicates that a past event has one of a range of possible relationships to the present. This may be a focus on present result: He has written a very fine book (and look, here it is, we have it now). Or it may indicate a time-frame which includes the present. I have lived here since my youth (and I still do). Compare: Have you written a letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did you write a letter this morning? (it is now afternoon). The perfect tenses are frequently used with the adverbs already or recently or with since clauses. Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed action, the present perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was ten years old.) or continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.) action:

In addition to these normal uses where the time frame either is the present or includes the present, the “have done” construct is used in temporal clauses to define a future time: When you have written it, show it to me. It also forms a past infinitive, used when infinitive constructions require a past perspective: Mozart is said to have written his first symphony at the age of eight. (Notice that if not for the need of an infinitive, the simple past would have been used here: He wrote it at age eight.) The past infinitive is also used in the conditional perfect.

Present perfect progressive

Or continuous.

· Affirmative: He has been writing

· Negative: He has not been writing

· Interrogative: Has he been writing?

· Negative interrogative: Has he not been writing? (Hasn't he been writing?)

Used for unbroken action in the past which continues right up to the present. I have been writing this paper all morning (and still am).

Past simple

Or preterite.

· Affirmative: He wrote

· Negative: He did not write

· Interrogative: Did he write?

· Negative interrogative: Did he not write? (Didn't he write?)

The same change of word order in the negative interrogative that distinguishes the formal and informal register also applies to the preterite. Note also that the preterite form is also used only in the affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or interrogative, he wrote not and wrote he? are archaic and not used in modern English. They must instead be supplied by periphrastic forms.

This tense is used for a single event in the past, sometimes for past habitual action, and in chronological narration. Like the present simple, it has emphatic forms with "do": he did write.

Although it is sometimes taught that the difference between the present perfect and the simple past is that the perfect denotes a completed action whereas the past denotes an incomplete action, this theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for completed actions. (Indeed the English preterite comes from the Proto-Indo-European perfect.) And either can be used for incomplete actions. The real distinction is that the present perfect is used when the time frame either is the present or includes the present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is in the absolute past.

The "used to" past tense for habitual actions is probably best included under the bracket of the past simple. Compare:

When I was young I played football every Saturday.

When I was young I used to play football every Saturday.

The difference is slight, but "used to" stresses the regularity, and the fact that the action has been discontinued.

Past continuous

Or imperfect or past progressive.

· Affirmative: He was writing

· Negative: He was not writing

· Interrogative: Was he writing?

· Negative interrogative: Was he not writing? (Wasn't he writing?)

This is typically used for two events in parallel:

While I was washing the dishes my wife was walking the dog.

Or for an interrupted action (the past simple being used for the interruption):

While I was washing the dishes I heard a loud noise.

Or when we are focussing on a point in the middle of a longer action:

At three o'clock yesterday I was working in the garden. (Contrast: I worked in the garden all day yesterday.)

Past perfect

Or the "pluperfect"

· Affirmative: He had written

· Negative: He had not / hadn't written

· Interrogative: Had he written?

· Negative interrogative: Had he not written? (Hadn't he written?)

Past perfect progressive

Or "pluperfect progressive" or "continuous"

· Affirmative: He had been writing

· Negative: He had not been / hadn't been writing

· Interrogative: Had he been writing?

· Negative interrogative: Had he not been writing? (Hadn't he been writing?)

Relates to the past perfect much as the present perfect progressive relates to the present perfect, but tends to be used with less precision.

Future simple

· Affirmative: He will write

· Negative: He will not / won't write

· Interrogative: Will he write?

· Negative interrogative: Will he not write? (Won't he write?)

See the article Shall and Will for a discussion of the two auxiliary verbs used to form the simple future in English. There is also a future with "go" which is used especially for intended actions, and for the weather, and generally is more common in colloquial speech:

I'm going to write a book some day.

I think it's going to rain.

But the will future is preferred for spontaneous decisions:

Jack: "I think we should have a barbeque!"

Jill: "Good idea! I'll go get the coal."

Future progressive

· Affirmative: He will be writing

· Negative: He will not / won't be writing

· Interrogative: Will he be writing?

· Negative interrogative: Will he not be writing? (Won't he be writing?)

Used especially to indicate that an event will be in progress at a particular point in the future: This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.

Future perfect

· Affirmative: He will have written

· Negative: He will not / won't have written

· Interrogative: Will he have written?

· Negative interrogative: Will he not have written? (Won't he have written?)

Used for something which will be completed by a certain time (perfect in the literal sense) or which leads up to a point in the future which is being focused on.

I will have finished my essay by Thursday.

By then she will have been there for three weeks.

Future perfect progressive

Or future perfect continuous.

· Affirmative: He will have been writing

· Negative: He will not / won't have been writing

· Interrogative: Will he have been writing?

· Negative interrogative: Will he not have been writing? (Won't he have been writing?)

Conditional

Or past subjunctive.

· Affirmative: He would write

· Negative: He would not / wouldn't write

· Interrogative: Would he write?

· Negative interrogative: Would he not write?

Used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or explicit doubt or "if-clause"; may refer to conditional statements in present or future time:

I would like to pay now if it's not too much trouble. (in present time; doubt of possibility is explicit)

I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit)

I would do it if she asked me to. (in future time; doubt is explicit)

I would do it. (in future time; doubt is implicit)

(A very common error by foreign learners is to put the would into the if-clause itself. A humorous formulation of the rule for the EFL classroom runs: "If and would you never should, if and will makes teacher ill!" But of course, both will and would CAN occur in an if-clause when expressing volition. A student of English may rarely encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as an archaic form.)

Conditional perfect

Or pluperfect subjunctive/past-perfect subjunctive.

· Affirmative: He would have written

· Negative: He would not / wouldn't have written

· Interrogative: Would he have written?

· Negative interrogative: Would he not have written?

Used as the past tense of the conditional form; expresses thoughts which are or may be contrary to present fact:

I would have set an extra place if I had known you were coming. (fact that an extra place was not set is implicit; conditional statement is explicit)

I would have set an extra place, but I didn't because Mother said you weren't coming. (fact that a place was not set is explicit; conditional is implicit)

I would have set an extra place. (fact that a place was not set is implicit, conditional is implicit)

Present subjunctive

The form is always identical to the infinitive. This means that, apart from the verb "to be", it is distinct only in the third person singular and the obsolete second person singular.

· Indicative: I write, thou writest, he writes, I am

· Subjunctive: I write, thou write, he write, I be

Used to refer to situations which are or may be contrary to fact in the present or future; the infactuality is rarely explicit:

I insist that he come at once. (present time; fact that the action is not currently occuring is implicit)

I insist that he come when I call. (future time; fact that the action may or may not occur is implicit)

(The present subjunctive is often interchangeable with the past subjunctive like so: I insist that he must come at once.)

Imperfect subjunctive

The use of the old term "imperfect" shows that this form is so rare that it has not been integrated into the modern system of English tense classification. The imperfect subjunctive is identical to the past simple in every verb except the verb "to be". With this verb, there is an option, but no longer a necessity, of using were throughout ALL forms (i.e., I wish I were an Oscar Meyer weiner, vs. I wish I was a girl).

· Indicative: I was

· Subjunctive: traditionally I were but now more commonly I was.

· If I were rich, I would retire to the South of France.

Auxilliary Verbs

An auxiliary verb is a verb that accompanies a main verb to indicate the tense, voice, mood, number, or person where this is not indicated by inflection:

The concert was enjoyed by all.

You will drown in a sea of homework if you do not work harder.

The auxiliary verb is also known as the helping verb.

What Is An Adjective?

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.

Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.

The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coal mines are dark and dank.

Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.

A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence

My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

for example, the adverb ``intricately'' modifies the adjective ``patterned.''

Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence

Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.

for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Grammarians also consider articles (``the,'' ``a,'' ``an'') to be adjectives.

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,'' ``our,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies ``assignment'' and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

What is your phone number.

Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is used to modify the noun phrase ``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your phone number'' is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``yours'' is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.

The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.

In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his favourite type of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''

After many years, she returned to her homeland.

Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun ``homeland'' and the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the object of the preposition ``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

We have lost our way in this wood.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``our'' modifies ``way'' and the noun phrase ``our way'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``ours'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.

Here the possessive adjective ``their'' modifies ``parents'' and the noun phrase ``their parents'' is the object of the preposition ``by.'' Note that the possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``its'' modifies ``ball'' and the noun phrase ``its ball'' is the object of the verb ``chased.'' Note that ``its'' is the possessive adjective and ``it's'' is a contraction for ``it is.''

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,'' and ``what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:

When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun ``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the preposition ``over.''

This apartment needs to be fumigated.

Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.

Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.

In the subordinate clause, ``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun phrase ``those plates'' is the object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the independent clause, ``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''

Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own:

Which plants should be watered twice a week?

Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should be watered'':

What book are you reading?

In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what book'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``are reading.''

Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrasé́́́́, as in the following sentences:

Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.

I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``will send.''

They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish'' and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb ``found'':

The title of Kelly's favourite game is ``All dogs go to heaven.''

Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title is a subject complement.

́́́́ THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

There are three degrees of comparison:
POSITIVE degree, COMPARATIVE degree, SUPERLATIVE degree:

POSITIVE	COMPARATIVE	SUPERLATIVE
cool	cooler	coolest
intelligent	more intelligent	most intelligent

01. COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY

AS .... AS (for positive comparisons),
(NOT) SO .... AS (for negative comparisons).

Her pronunciation is AS good AS yours.
His pronunciation is NOT SO good AS yours.

Note: We may say NOT AS .... AS, especially after a contracted form: Her pronunciation isn't AS good AS yours.

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02. COMPARATIVE OF INFERIORITY

LESS ..... THAN + the adjective.

It is LESS cold today THAN it was yesterday.
Kelly is LESS old THAN Sandra.

03. SUPERLATIVE OF INFERIORITY

THE LEAST ....... OF (or IN) + the adjective.

Sunday was THE LEAST cold day of the week.
Christina is THE LEAST old girl in that class.

04. COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE OF SUPERIORITY

a) Monosyllabic adjectives form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE by adding - ER and - EST to the POSITIVE degree.

Tall	tallER THAN	THE tallEST
Warm	warmER THAN	THE warmEST

Exceptions:

Just	MORE just THAN	THE MOST just
Right	MORE right THAN	THE MOST right
Real	MORE real THAN	THE MOST real
Wrong	MORE wrong THAN	THE MOST wrong

b) Adjectives with more than two syllables form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE by putting MORE and THE MOST in front of the adjective.

Difficult	MORE difficult THAN	THE MOST difficult
important	MORE important THAN	THE MOST important

c) Disyllabic (two syllables) adjectives form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE in two different ways:

1. Adjectives ending in ED, ING, RE, FUL, OUS and those with the stress on the first syllable usually take MORE and THE MOST:

charming	MORE charming THAN	THE MOST charming
famous	MORE famous THAN	THE MOST famous
hopeful	MORE hopeful THAN	THE MOST hopeful
learned	MORE learned THAN	THE MOST learned
obscure	MORE obscure THAN	THE MOST obscure

2. Adjectives ending in ER, Y, LE, OW and those with the stress on the second syllable add ER and EST to the POSITIVE degree.

clever	cleverER THAN	THE cleverEST
narrow	narrowER THAN	THE narrowEST
pretty	prettiER THAN	THE prettiEST
polite	politER THAN	THE politEST
simple	simplER THAN	THE simplEST

Note: Adjectives ending in SOME and the words cheerful, common, cruel, pleasant, quiet, civil may be compared by adding ER and EST or by MORE and MOST.

pleasant

pleasantER THAN

THE pleasantEST

or

pleasant

MORE pleasant THAN

THE MOST pleasant

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05. ORTHOGRAPHIC NOTES
a) Add R and ST to adjectives ending in E.

large	largeR THAN	THE largeST
ripe	ripeR THAN	THE ripeST

b) VOWEL SANDWICH (VOWEL + CONSONANT + VOWEL) (THE LAST VOWEL IS DOUBLED)

big	bigGER THAN	THE bigGEST
fat	fatTER THAN	THE fatTEST

NO SANDWICH (JUST THE SUFFIX)

small	smallER THAN	THE smallEST
sweet	sweetER THAN	THE sweetEST

c) Adjectives ending in - y preceded by a consonant, change Y into I before ER and EST.

happY

happIER THAN

THE happIEST

Exceptions:

shY	shYER THAN	THE shYEST
gaY	gaYER THAN	THE gaYEST
greY	greYER THAN	THE greYEST

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6. IRREGULAR COMPARISONS

good	better than	the best
bad	worse than	the worst
little	less than	the least
much	more than	the most
many	more than	the most
far	farther than	the farthest
far	further than	the furthest
old	older than	the oldest
old	elder than	the eldest

NOTES:
1. FARTHER and FARTHEST generally refer to distance; FURTHER and FURTHEST also refer to distance but they may have the meaning of "additional".
I live farther from here than you do.
Give me further details.

2. OLDER and OLDEST refer to persons or things; ELDER and ELDEST can only be used for members of the same family:
My elder sister is afraid of mice.
My older friend is afraid of wasps.

but ELDER can not be placed before THAN so OLDER is used:
My sister is two years older than I am.

7. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARATIVES

a) Gradual increase:
Those exercises are getting EASIER AND EASIER. OR
Those exercises are getting MORE AND MORE EASY.

The weather is getting NICER AND NICER. OR
The weather is getting MORE AND MORE NICE.

The rent of our flat is getting MORE AND MORE EXPENSIVE.

B) Parallel increase: (THE + comparative ...... THE + comparative).
THE MORE I see you THE MORE I want you.
THE HOTTER, THE BETTER.
THE MORE he studies, THE BETTER he becomes.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

1. COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE of SUPERIORITY.

a) Monosyllabic adverbs from their comparative and superlative of superiority in the same way as monosyllabic adjectives.

high	highER THAN	THE highEST
soon	soonER THAN	THE soonEST
fast	fastER THAN	THE fastEST

b) Adverbs of more than one syllable take MORE and MOST.

quickly	MORE quickly THAN	THE MOST quickly
slowly	MORE slowly THAN	THE MOST slowly
seldom	MORE seldom THAN	THE MOST seldom

Exception:

early

earliER THAN

THE earliEST

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2. IRREGULAR COMPARISONS

well	better than	the best
badly	worse than	the worst
little	less than	the least
much	more than	the most
late	later than	the last

WORD ORDER

Declarative Sentences

Subject	Predicate	Object			Adverbial Modifier of
		indirect	direct	prepo-sitional	manner	place	Time
Our guide	speaks		English		fluently
Наш гід	роз-мовляє		англійською		вільно
My sister	sent	me	a telegram				Yesterday
Моя сестра	на-діслала	мені	телеграму				Вчора
Mother	bought		a dress	for her		in a boutique
Мати	купила		сукню	для неї		в магазині

Negative Sentences

Subject	Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb + not	Verb	Object and adverbial modifier
My friend	does not	leave for	Spain tonight
Мій товариш	Не	від’їжджає до	Іспанії сьогодні ввечері
He	did not	like	coffee with sugar in it
Він	Не	любив	кави з цукром
You	should not	do	that again
Ти	не повинен	робити	цього більше

General Questions

(General questions require the answer yes or no)

Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb	Subject	Verb	Object and adverbial modifier
Does	Sugar	dissolve	in water?
	Цукор	розчиняється	у воді?
Could	I	take	your pen?
Можна	мені	взяти	вашу ручку?
Have	the students	coped	with all difficulties?
	Студенти	подолали	всі труднощі?

Special Questions

(Special questions refer to a various parts of the sentence)

Interrogative word	Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb	Subject	Verb	Object and adverbial modifier
Where	did	she	get	my address?
Де		Вона	дістала	мою адресу?
Who			goes	to the cinema?
Хто			йде	у кіно?
When	was	the castle	built?
Коли		цей замок	збудований?
How long	have	you	known	him?
Як довго		Ви	знаєте	його?

Alternative Questions

(Alternative questions imply choice and consist of two parts connected by the conjunction or)

Interrogative word	Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb	Subject	Verb	Object and adverbial modifier
	Did	He	start learning	Spanish or French?
		Він	почав вивчати	іспанську чи французьку мову?
Who			invented	the steam engine: James Watt or Thomas Edison?
Хто			винайшов	паровий двигун: Джеймс Ватт чи Томас Едісон?
What time	does	she	have breakfast:	at 7 or 8 in the morning?
О котрій годині		Вона	снідає:	о 7 чи 8 вранці?

Question Tags

(Question tags sconsist of two parts. The first part is a declarative sentence, the second – a short general question. The second part consists of the subject expressed by personal pronoun corresponding to the subject of the first part and of the auxiliary or modal verb. If the first part of the question is positive, the second is negative and vice versa)

Subject	Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb and not	Verb	Object and adverbial modifiers	Short general question
Your brother		works	there,	does not he?
Ваш брат		працює	там,	чи не так?
Jane	did not	say	that,	did she?
Джейн	не	казала	цього,	чи не так?
Tom and Ted	are	coming	tonight,	are not they?
Том і Тед		приїжджають	сьогодні ввечері,	чи не так?
They	cannot	remember	clearly what happened,	can they?
Вони	не	пригадують	точно, що трапилось,	чи не так?

Table of Irregular Verbs

be [bJ]	was [wOz], were [wW]	been [bJn]	бути
become [bi'kAm]	became [bi'keim]	become [bi'kAm]	ставати
begin [bi'gin]	began [bi'gxn]	Begun [bi'gAn]	починати
bring [brIN]	brought [brLt]	brought [brLt]	приносити
build [bild]	built [blt]	built [blt]	будувати
buy [bai]	bought [bLt]	bought [bLt]	купувати
come [kAm]	came [keim]	Come [kAm]	приходити
cut [kAt]	cut [kAt]	cut [kAt]	різати
deal [dJl]	dealt [delt]	Dealt [delt]]	мати справу
do [dH]	did [did]	done [dAn]	робити
drink [driNk]	drank [drxNk]	drunk [dANk]	пити
eat [Jt]	ate [et] [eit]	eaten ['Jt(q)n]	їсти
fall [fLl]	fell [fel]	Fallen ['fLlqn]	падати
feel [fJl]	felt [felt]	felt [felt]	відчувати
fight [fait]	fought [fLt]	fought [fLt]	змагатися
find [faind]	found [faund]	found [faund]	знаходити
fly [flai]	flew [flu:]	Flown [flqun]	літати
Forget [fq'get]	forgot [fq'gOt]	forgotten [fq'gOtn]	забувати
get [get]	got [gOt]	got [gOt]	одержувати
give [giv]	gave [geiv]	Given ['giv(q)n]	давати
go [gqu]	went [went]	gone [gOn]	ходити
have [hxv]	had [hxd]	had [hxd]	мати
hear [hiq]	heard [hWd]	heard [hWd]	чути
keep [kJp]	kept [kept]	kept [kept]	зберігати
know [nqu]	knew [nju:]	known [nqun]	знати
learn [lWn]	learnt [lWnt]	learnt [lWnt]	учити
leave [lJv]	left [left]	left [left]	залишати
lie [lai]	lay [lei]	lain [lein]	лежати
make [meik]	made [meid]	Made [meid]	робити
meet [mJt]	met [met]	met [met]	зустрічати
pay [pei]	paid [peid]	paid [peid]	платити
put [put]	put [put]	put [put]	класти
read [rJd]	read [red]	read [red]	читати
ring [riN]	rang [rxN]	Rung [rAN]	дзвонити
rise [raiz]	rose [rquz]	Risen ['riz(q)n]	піднімати
run [rAn]	ran [rxn]	run [rAn]	бігати
say [sei]	said [sed]	said [sed]	сказати
see [sJ]	saw [sL]	seen [sJn]	бачити
sell [sel]	sold [squld]	sold [squld]	продавати
send [send]	sent [sent]	sent [sent]	посилати
show [Squ]	showed [Squd]	showed [Squd]	показувати
sing [siN]	sang [sxN]	Sung [sAN]	співати
sit [sit]	sat [sxt]	sat [sxt]	сидіти
speak [spJk]	spoke [spquk]	spoken ['spquk(q)n]	говорити
spend [spend]	spent [spent]	spent [spent	витрачати
stand [stxnd]	stood [stu:d]	stood [stu:d]	стояти
take [teik]	took [tuk]	Taken ['teik(q)n]	брати
teach [tJC]	taught [tLt]	taught [tLt]	учити
tell [tel]	told [tquld]	told [tquld]	розказувати
think [TiNk]	thought [TLt]	thought [TLt]	думати
understand ["Andq'stxnd]	understood ["Andq'stud]	understood ["Andq'stud]	розуміти
wake [weik]	woke [wquk]	woken ['wquk(q)n]	прокидатися
write [rait]	wrote [rqut]	written ['rit(q)n]	писати

ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation or symbol	Meaning	Translation
n	noun	іменник
v	verb	дієслово
adj	adjective	прикметник
adv	adverb	прислівник
prep	preposition	прийменник
pl	plural	множина
e.g.	скорочено від “exempli gratia”	наприклад
i.e.	скорочено від “id est	тобто
Ab	antibody	антитіло
ABc	antibiotic	антибіотик
ad lib	as desired; at one’s pleasure	на свій розсуд; за бажанням
ad us. ext	for external use	для зовнішнього використання
adv	against	всупереч ; проти, навпроти
ag	antigen	антиген
AIDS	acquired immunodeficiency syndrome	синдром набутого імунного дефіциту, СНІД
alt hor	every other hour	через годину
ASAP	as soon as possible	якомога швидше
at wt (AW)	atomic weight	атомна маса
ax	axis	Вісь
b	blood	кров
BC	blood count	аналіз крові
b.i.d	twice a day	двічі на день
BP	blood pressure	кров’яний тиск
Bx	biopsy	біопсія
C	calorie	калорія, мала калорія
cc	cell count	підрахунок кров’яних тілець
c.c.	cubic centimetre	кубічний сантиметр
C.C.	chief complaint	головна скарга
cm	centimetre	сантиметр
CNS	central nervous system	центральна нервова система
c/o	complains of	скарги на
dl	decilitre	децилітр
DU	duodenal ulcer	виразка дванадцятипалої кишки
DM	diabetes mellitus	діабет, цукрова хвороба
DNA	deoxyribonucleic acid	ДНК
Dx	diagnosis	діагноз
dz	disease	хвороба
ED	effective dose	ефективна доза
ECG (EKG)	electrocardiogram	електрокардіограма
ENT	ear, nose and throat	вухо, ніс і горло
ER	endoplasmic reticulum	ендоплазматичний ретикулум
FB	foreign body	чужорідне тіло
Fc	fragment	фрагмент; обривок; уламок; осколок
FH	family history	сімейний анамнез
g	gram	грам
grad.	by steps, gradually	поступово, мало-помалу; послідовно
GU	genitourinary	сечостатевий
Hgb	haemoglobin	гемоглобін
HIV	human immunodeficiency virus	вірус імунодефіциту людини
HR	heart rate	частота серцебиття
HS	heart sounds	Тони серця
Hx	history	історія
Ig	immunoglobulin	імуноглобулін
in d	daily	щодня, щоденно
kg	kilogram	кілограм
l	litre	Літр
mg	milligram	міліграм
min	minute	хвилина
ml	millilitre	мілілітр
mm	millimetre	міліметр
N	nerve	нерв
noc	night	Ніч
N & V	nausea and vomiting	нудота і блювання
O2	oxygen	кисень
OB	occult blood	прихована кров
OH	occupational history	професійний анамнез
OPD	outpatient department	амбулаторне відділення
P	pressure	Тиск
P & A	percussion and auscultation	перкусія (вистукування) і вислухування
pc	after a meal	після прийняття їжі
PH	past history	анамнез
PI	history of present illness	анамнез захворювання, історія теперішнього захворювання
PMH	past medical history	історія