The 1-st
year,
Module 2
№ 8. Subject: Public Health Measures. Dental services in
Ukraine and in the UK
Public Health Measures.
Dental
Health Education
The
practitioner can explain the causes and prevention of dental disease to individual
patients in his surgery. But there still remains an urgent need for a much
greater effort by the public health services. Expectant and nursing mothers,
parents of schoolchildren, and young teenagers are the groups most in need of
advice on dental care. Much more publicity is necessary to warn these groups of
the damage done by dummies used with sweetened fruit juices; of acquiring the
habit of unrestricted snacks between meals; and evading dental inspection until
toothache develops. Doctors, midwives, health visitors, clinic staff and school
teachers all have a part to play in helping the dental profession to educate
the public.
Nursing
mothers should be encourage to bring their babies when
they have their own dental inspections. Toddlers will thereby accept the dental
surgery as a place of interest and soon become regular and cooperative patients
themselves, long before any treatment is necessary. The discipline of confining
sweets to mealtimes and brushing after meals can be developed at an early age,
and will establish good dental habits of lifelong value.
Parents
should be warned of the danger of sticky carbohydrates causing caries and
encouraged to restrict consumption of sweets between meals. In school, steps
should be taken to ensure that school dinners do not leave a film of
carbohydrate debris on the teeth.
Young
teenagers soon realize the importance of good appearance and this can be
utilized in dental health education. Regular visits to the dentist for scaling
and polishing, filling cavities in front teeth, orthodontics for straightening
teeth, and the value of dietary discipline and oral hygiene: all these ways of
improving appearance are freely available to them, but too little is being done
at national level to make it known.
Many excellent films, posters and pamphlets are
already available for display in clinics and schools but these forms of dental
health education are only reaching a small section of the population. To help
reduce the vast amount of dental disease, the entire population needs to be
shown how to maintain good dental health by dietary discipline, strict oral
hygiene and regular dental inspection.
Dental Services in Our Country
All
kinds of dental aids in our country are rendered mainly at state owned medical institutions
— dental clinics, dental departments at district polyclinics, at schools. Private practice also exists. One can
speak about a basic preventive outlook.
In the
preventive field careful studies are being done by our dentists. They regard
good hygiene, rational feeding and healthy diet, the prevention of infections
and chronic diseases as the most important general preventive measures against
dental infection.
We
have various experiments in fluoridation of
water supplies. It is necessary to know more regarding control of individual
dosages and effects in various age groups.
The
general dental services cover the ordinary routine reparative and restorative requirements. The work of dentists is good
in oral surgery, especially in the reconstructive surgery of the face.
The
country has set up state dental service for children. In the towns the
pediatric surgery is the basic
unit. There the number of dentists is proportional to the number of children under care and is
laid down by law.
The variety and range of research work is also
impressive in our country.
THE ORGANIZATION OF DENTAL SERVICES IN THE
There
are currently over 20 000
dentists registered in the
Dentists
in general practice work on a fee for item of Service basis and paid for
courses of treatment completed. The service is oriented to curative and
rehabilitative treatment rather than prevention.
In.
contrast to the general medical service, there are no restrictions on where
dentists may practice and their lists are not closed. Patients do not
register with a particular practitioner but may seek a course of dental
treatment wherever they can obtain it. While the NHS guarantees everyone a doctor no one is guaranteed a dentist.
Adult patients are obliged to pay a contribution towards the cost of
routine dental treatment with higher charges for dentures and some of the more
costly items of restorative treatment. Some items such as examination and
report, arrest of bleeding are free under the NHS.
General
practitioners contracts are held by Family Practitioner Committees of Area
Health Authorities.
Dentists
working in the community service are remunerated by salary. The service is
organized on an area basis in clinics and .health centers and is devoted to
dental care of defined priority. Priority group patients can obtain dental
treatment free of charge. These groups include children of all ages, expectant and nursing mothers and handicapped adults.
Because community dental officers are not subjected to the same demanding
economic pressures as their collegues in general practice, they have
more time to devote to children and to balance the curative treatment they
provide with appropriate prevention.
The
hospital dental service provides specialist consultant advice and treatment in
oral and maxillofacial surgery,
orthodontics and restorative dentistry. In addition it has responsibility for
routine dental care for long stay hospital patients and the emergency
treatments of short stay patients.
VIDEO
While
Dental Aid is an oral health care provider our focus is larger than simply
cleaning and restoring teeth. Dental Aid hopes to positively impact the oral
health of the populations most at risk of oral disease through prevention and
early intervention. Our dream is a generation of children who grow into
adulthood without ever experiencing oral disease – no cavities and no gum
disease! We work to achieve this dream through community outreach, oral
health screenings, and patient education.
Oral Health Education and Screenings
Dental Aid’s education program includes showing age appropriate videos,
distributing toothbrushes and toothpaste, and instructing children and
caregivers on preventive maintenance, including brushing, flossing, fluoride,
and healthful nutrition habits.
During Dental Aid non-invasive
screenings, a dental hygienist or assistant looks at each child’s mouth and
rates oral health needs according to five categories: urgent dental needs,
problems found, orthodontic consult recommended, better brushing recommended,
or no problems found. A complete examination, x-rays, and cleaning are
recommended for all children. The purpose of the screenings is to assess
overall oral health and identify dental problems, such as severe dental caries
or infection, which require immediate treatment. Parents are notified of the
screening results by the school/center staff and encouraged to access dental
care services.
Individual Patient Education
All Dental Aid patients receive individualized oral health education during
each visit. Patients (and when the patient is a child, their parents)
receive information on the benefits of brushing, flossing, fluoride, good
nutrition, and regular dental visits. Patients and parents are also asked to
commit to positive oral health behavior changes for themselves and their
children. The result is an increase in awareness of good oral health care, not
only for the patient, but for the entire family.
The mission
of the Oral Health Unit is to prevent oral disease among
The Oral
Health Unit plays a vital role in improving the quality of life for all the
children of
Oral diseases
are a major health concern affecting almost every person in
.
A noun is a
word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are
usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted
words in the following sentences
are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbours
bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector
looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch,
the library at
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject,
a direct object,
an indirect object,
a subject complement,
an object complement,
an appositive,
an adjective
or an adverb.
Many common nouns, like "engineer"
or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns
would change form depending on their gender
-- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called
an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific
nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend
to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.
David Garrick was a very prominent
eighteenth-century actor.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her
career as an actress in the 1780s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad,
but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a
"waitress"
Most nouns change their form to indicate number
by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following
pairs of sentences:
When Matthew was small he rarely told
the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.
Many people do not believe that truths
are self-evident.
As they walked through the silent house.
they were startled by an unexpected echo.
I like to shout into the quarry and
listen to the echoes that returned.
He tripped over a box
left carelessly in the hallway.
Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.
There are other nouns which form the plural
by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in
"f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding
"ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting
the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of
sentences:
The harbour at
There are several wharves
in
The vacation my grandparents won
includes trips to twelve European cities.
The children circled around the
headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"
The audience was shocked when all five
men admitted that they were afraid of mice.
Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If
English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when
in doubt, consult a good dictionary.
In the possessive case,
a noun or pronoun
changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else.
Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe
and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular
noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and
"s," as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime
minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before
dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was
covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a
singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding
an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:
The bus's seats are
very uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are very
uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's
eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus'
eggs.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
You can form the possessive case of a plural
noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a
"s," as in the following examples:
The children's mittens
were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was
mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process,
a jury's verdict is not always final.
The men's hockey team
will be play as soon as the women's team is finished.
The hunter followed the moose's
trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural
noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs'
barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies'
squalling.
The janitors' room is
downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to
locate the squirrels' nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing
the diaries' bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates'
many late night debates.
When you read the following sentences, you
will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an
adjective modifying another noun:
The miner's face was covered
in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's"
is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article
"the," they make up the noun phrase
that is the sentence's subject.
The concert was interrupted by the dogs'
barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies'
squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun
modifies a gerund.
The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking",
"ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"'
modifies "squalling."
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's
eggs.
In this example the possessive noun
"platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase
"the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb
"crushed."
My uncle spent many hours trying to
locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun
"squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun
phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object
of the infinitive phrase
"to locate."
There are many different types of nouns. As
you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as "
If you are interested in the details of these
different types, you can read about them in the following sections.
You always write a proper
noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of
a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days
of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations,
religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun
is the opposite of a common noun
In each of the following sentences, the
proper nouns are highlighted:
The Marroons were
transported from
Many people dread Monday
mornings.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
Last year, I had a Baptist,
a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as
roommates.
A common noun
is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually,
you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A
common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common
nouns are highlighted:
According to the sign,
the nearest town is
All the gardens in the neighbourhood
were invaded by beetles this summer.
I don't understand why some people
insist on having six different kinds of mustard
in their cupboards.
The road crew was
startled by the sight of three large moose
crossing the road.
Many child-care workers
are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of
common nouns, as in the following examples:
The tenants in the Garnet
Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in
their rent.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean
Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary
restaurants.
Many witches refer to the Renaissance as
the Burning Times.
The Diary of Anne Frank
is often a child's first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.
A concrete
noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can
perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the
following sentences are all concrete nouns:
The judge handed the files
to the clerk.
Whenever they take the dog
to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent
urged the couple to buy the second house
because it had new shingles.
As the car drove past
the park, the thump of a disco tune
overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of
a minuet.
The book binder
replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.
An abstract
noun is a noun which names anything which you can not
perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete
noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all
abstract nouns:
Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused by people who are
nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
Some scientists believe that schizophrenia
is transmitted genetically.
A countable
noun (or count noun) is
a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or
anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made
plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the
opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted
words are countable nouns:
We painted the table
red and the chairs blue.
Since he inherited his aunt's
library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing
his books.
Miriam found six silver dollars
in the toe of a sock.
The oak tree lost three
branches in the hurricane.
Over the course of
twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight
hundred babies.
A non-countable
noun (or mass noun) is a noun
which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could
(or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb
in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the
opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the
following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally
be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Since "oxygen" is a non-countable
noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb
"are."
We decided to sell the furniture
rather than take it with use when we moved.
You cannot make the noun
"furniture" plural.
The furniture is heaped
in the middle of the room.
Since "furniture" is a
non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."
The crew spread the gravel
over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun
"gravel" plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable
noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."
A collective
noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You
could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group
as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise
collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun
is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable
noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted
word is a collective noun:
The flock of geese
spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun "geese" takes
the singular verb "spends."
The jury is dining on
take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun
"jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb
"is dining."
The steering committee
meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun
"committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."
The class was startled
by the bursting light bulb.
In this sentence the word "class"
is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was
startled".
The verb is perhaps the most
important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of
the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound
verb is the critical element of the predicate of
a sentence.
In each of the following
sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:
Dracula bites
his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites"
describes the action Dracula takes.
In early October,
Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb
"will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.
My first teacher was
Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.
In this sentence, the verb
"was" (the simple past tense of
"is") identifies a particular person and the verb
"remembered" describes a mental action.
Karl Creelman
bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and his bicycle were
destroyed.
In this sentence, the
compound verb "were destroyed" describes an action which took place
in the past.
Verbs in the English
language are a lexically and
morphologically distinct part of speech which describes an action, an event, or a state.
While English has many irregular verbs, for the regular ones the conjugation rules are quite straightforward.
Being part of an analytic
language, English regular verbs are not very much inflected;
all tenses, aspects and moods except the simple present and the simple past are
periphrastic, formed with auxiliary
verbs and modals.
A regular English verb has
only one principal
part, the infinitive or dictionary form (which is
identical to the simple present tense for all persons and numbers except the
third person singular). All other forms of a regular verb can be derived
straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of four forms (e.g. exist,
exists, existed, existing)
English irregular verbs (except
to be) have at most three principal parts:
|
Part |
Example: |
1 |
write |
|
2 |
Wrote |
|
3 |
Written |
Strong
verbs like write have all three distinct
parts, for a total of five forms (e. g. write, writes, wrote, written,
writing). The more irregular weak
verbs also require up to three forms to be
learned.
The highly irregular copular
verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been,
of which only one is derivable from a principal part (being is derived
from be). On the history of this verb, see Indo-European
copula.
Verbs had more forms when
the pronoun thou was still in regular use and there was a number distinction
in the second person. To be, for instance, had art, wast
and wert.
Most of the strong verbs
that survive in modern
English are considered irregular. Irregular verbs in
English come from several historical sources; some are technically strong verbs
(i. e. their forms display specific vowel changes of the type known as ablaut in linguistics); others have had various phonetic changes or contractions
added to them over the history of English.
The infinitive in
English is the naked root form of the word. When it is being used as a verbal noun, the particle to is usually prefixed to
it. When the infinitive stands as the predicate of an auxiliary verb, to
may be omitted, depending on the requirements of the idiom.
·
The infinitive, in English,
is one of two verbal
nouns: To write is to learn.
·
The infinitive, either
marked with to or unmarked, is used as the complement of many auxiliary
verbs: I will write a novel about talking beavers; I am really going to
write it.
·
The basic form also forms
the English imperative
mood: Write these words!
·
The basic form makes the
English subjunctive
mood: If you write it, they will read.
The third person singular
in regular
verbs in English is distinguished by the suffix -s. In English spelling, this -s is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run →
runs.
If the base ends in a sibilant
sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/,
/tʃ/ (see IPA)
that is not followed by a silent
E, the suffix is written -es: buzz → buzzes;
catch → catches.
If the base ends in a
consonant plus y, the y changes to an i and -es is
affixed to the end: cry → cries.
Verbs ending in o
typically add -es: veto → vetoes.
In Early
Modern English, some dialects distinguished the third
person singular with the suffix -th; after
consonants this was written -eth, and some consonants were doubled when
this was added: run → runneth.
·
The third person singular is
used exclusively in the third person form of the English simple "present
tense", which often has other uses besides the simple present: He writes
airport
novels about anthropomorphic rodents.
English preserves a number
of preterite-present verbs,
such as can and may. These verbs lack a separate form for the
third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving preterite-present
verbs in modern English are auxiliary verbs. The verb will,
although historically not a preterite-present verb,
has come to be inflected like one when used as an auxiliary; it adds -s
in the third person singular only when it is a full verb: Whatever she wills
to happen will make life annoying for everyone else.
The present participle
is made by the suffix -ing: go → going.
If the base ends in silent e,
it is dropped before adding the suffix: believe → believing.
If the e is not
silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing.
If the base ends in -ie,
change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying.
If:
·
the base form ends in a
single consonant; and
·
a single vowel precedes that
consonant; and
·
the last syllable of the
base form is stressed
then the final consonant is
doubled before adding the suffix: set → setting; occur
→ occurring.
In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to doubling even when the
last syllable is not stressed: yodel → yodelling, travel
→ travelling; in American English, these follow the rule: yodeling, traveling. Similarly focus
→ focussing (AE focusing).
Irregular forms include:
·
singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not dropped to avoid confusion with singing;
·
ageing, in British
English, where the expected form aging is
ambiguous as to whether it has a hard or soft g;
·
words ending in -c,
which add k before the -ing, for example, panicking, frolicking,
and bivouacking.
·
a number of words that are
subject to the doubling rule even though they do not fall squarely within its
terms, such as diagramming, kidnapping, programming, and worshipping.
·
The present participle is
another English verbal noun: Writing is learning
(see gerund for
this sense).
·
It is used as an adjective: a
writing desk; building beavers.
·
It is used to form a past,
present or future tense with progressive or imperfective force: He is writing
another long book about beavers.
·
It is used with
quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried writing about
opossums instead, but his muse deserted him.
In weak
verbs, the preterite is formed with the
suffix -ed: work → worked.
If the base ends in e,
-d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye
> dyed.
Where the base ends in a
consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the -ed
is added; deny → denied.
Where the base ends in a
vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy → alloyed.
The rule for doubling the
final consonant in regular weak verbs for the preterite is the same as the rule
for doubling in the present participle; see above.
Many strong
verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite differently, for which see that article.
·
The preterite is used for
the English simple (non-iterative or progressive) past tense. He wrote
two more chapters about the dam at
In regular weak
verbs, the past participle is always the
same as the preterite.
Irregular verbs may have
separate preterites and past participles; see Wiktionary appendix: Irregular
English verbs.
·
The past participle is used
with the auxiliary have for the English perfect tenses: They have
written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent of the lodge...
(With verbs of motion, an archaic form with be may be found in older
texts: he is come.)
·
With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what it's like to gnaw down
trees!
·
It is used as an adjective: the
written word; a broken dam.
·
It is used with
quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: 500,000 words got written in
record time.
English verbs, like those in
many other western
European languages, have more tenses than forms;
tenses beyond the ones possible with the five forms listed above are formed
with auxiliary
verbs, as are the passive voice forms of these verbs. Important auxiliary verbs in English include will,
used to form the future
tense; shall, formerly used mainly for the
future tense, but now used mainly for commands and directives; be, have,
and do, which are used to form the supplementary tenses of the English
verb, to add aspect to the actions they describe, or for negation.
English verbs display complex
forms of negation.
While simple negation was used well into the period of early Modern English (Touch
not the royal person!) in contemporary English negation almost always
requires that the negative particle be attached to an auxiliary verb such as do
or be. I go not is archaic; I don't go or I am not
going are what the contemporary idiom requires.
English exhibits similar
idiomatic complexity with the interrogative
mood, which in Indo-European languages is not,
strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western
European languages, English historically allowed questions to be asked by
inverting the position of verb and subject: Whither goest thou? Now, in
English, questions are trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary
verbs.
In English grammar, tense
refers to any conjugated form expressing time, aspect or mood. The large number
of different composite verb forms means that English has the richest and
subtlest system of tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be
confusing for foreign learners; however, the English verb is in fact very
systematic once one understands that in each of the three time spheres - past,
present and future - English has a basic tense which can then be made either
perfect or progressive (continuous) or both.
|
Simple |
Progressive |
Perfect |
Perfect progressive |
I will write |
I will be writing |
I will have written |
I will have been
writing |
|
I write |
I am writing |
I have written |
I have been writing |
|
I wrote |
I was writing |
I had written |
I had been writing |
Because of the neatness of
this system, modern textbooks on English generally use the terminology in this
table. What was traditionally called the "perfect" is here called
"present perfect" and the "pluperfect" becomes "past perfect",
in order to show the relationships of the perfect forms to their respective
simple forms. Whereas in other Germanic languages, or in Old English, the
"perfect" is just a past tense, the English "present
perfect" has a present reference; it is both a past tense and a present
tense, describing the connection between a past event and a present state.
However, historical
linguists sometimes prefer terminology which applies to all Germanic languages
and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when describing wrote as a
historical form, for example, we would say "preterite" rather than
"past simple".
This table, of course, omits
a number of forms which can be regarded as additional to the basic system:
·
the intensive present I
do write
·
the intensive past I did
write
·
the habitual past I used
to write
·
the "shall future"
I shall write
·
the "going-to
future" I am going to write
·
the "future in the
past" I was going to write
·
the conditional I would
write
·
the perfect conditional I
would have written
·
the (increasingly seldom
used) subjunctives, if I be, if I were.
Some systems of English
grammar eliminate the future tense altogether, treating will/would simply as modal verbs, in the same category as
other modal verbs such as can/could and may/might. See Grammatical tense for a more technical discussion of this subject.
A full inventory of verb
forms follows.
Or simple present.
·
Affirmative: I write;
He writes
·
Negative: He does not
(doesn't) write
·
Interrogative: Does he
write?
·
Negative interrogative: Does
he not write? (Doesn't he write?)
Note that the "simple present" in
idiomatic English often identifies habitual or customary action:
He writes about beavers (understanding that he does so all the time.)
It is used with stative verbs:
She thinks beavers are remarkable
It can also have a future meaning (though
much less commonly than in many other languages):
She goes to
Put Tuesday in the plural, and She
goes to
The present simple has an intensive or
emphatic form with "do": He does write. In the negative and
interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the non-emphatic forms. It
is typically used as a response to the question Does he write, whether
that question is expressed or implied, and says that indeed, he does write.
The idiomatic use of the negative
particles not and -n't in the interrogative form is also worth
noting. In formal literary English of the sort in which contractions are avoided, not attaches itself
to the main verb: Does he not write? When the colloquial contraction -n't
is used, this attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn't he write?
This in fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still occasionally
found in poetry: *Does not he write?
Or present continuous.
·
Affirmative: He is
writing
·
Negative: He is not
writing
·
Interrogative: Is he
writing?
·
Negative interrogative: Is
he not writing? (Isn't he writing?)
This form describes the simple engagement in
a present activity, with the focus on action in progress "at this very
moment". It too can indicate a future, particularly when discussing plans
already in place: I am flying to
Traditionally just called the perfect.
·
Affirmative: He has
written
·
Negative: He has not
written
·
Interrogative: Has he
written?
·
Negative interrogative: Has
he not written? (Hasn't he written?)
This indicates that a past event has one of a
range of possible relationships to the present. This may be a focus on present
result: He has written a very fine book (and look, here it is, we have
it now). Or it may indicate a time-frame which includes the present. I have
lived here since my youth (and I still do). Compare: Have you written a
letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did you write a letter
this morning? (it is now afternoon). The perfect tenses are frequently used
with the adverbs already or recently or with since
clauses. Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed action, the
present perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was
ten years old.) or continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.)
action:
In addition to these normal uses where the
time frame either is the present or includes the present, the “have done”
construct is used in temporal clauses to define a future time: When you have
written it, show it to me. It also forms a past infinitive, used when
infinitive constructions require a past perspective: Mozart is said to have
written his first symphony at the age of eight. (Notice that if not for the
need of an infinitive, the simple past would have been used here: He wrote
it at age eight.) The past infinitive is also used in the conditional
perfect.
Or continuous.
· Affirmative: He has been writing
· Negative: He has not been writing
· Interrogative: Has he been writing?
· Negative interrogative: Has he not been writing? (Hasn't he been writing?)
Used for unbroken action in the past which
continues right up to the present. I have been writing this paper all
morning (and still am).
Or preterite.
·
Affirmative: He wrote
·
Negative: He did not
write
·
Interrogative: Did he
write?
·
Negative interrogative: Did
he not write? (Didn't he write?)
The same change of word order in the negative
interrogative that distinguishes the formal and informal register also applies
to the preterite. Note also that the preterite form is also used only in the
affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or interrogative, he
wrote not and wrote he? are archaic and not used in modern English.
They must instead be supplied by periphrastic forms.
This tense is used for a single event in the
past, sometimes for past habitual action, and in chronological narration. Like
the present simple, it has emphatic forms with "do": he did write.
Although it is sometimes taught that the
difference between the present perfect and the simple past is that the perfect
denotes a completed action whereas the past denotes an incomplete action, this
theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for completed actions.
(Indeed the English preterite comes from the Proto-Indo-European
perfect.) And either can be used for incomplete actions. The real distinction
is that the present perfect is used when the time frame either is the present
or includes the present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is
in the absolute past.
The "used to" past tense for
habitual actions is probably best included under the bracket of the past
simple. Compare:
When I was young I played football every
Saturday.
When I was young I used to play football
every Saturday.
The difference is slight, but "used
to" stresses the regularity, and the fact that the action has been
discontinued.
Or imperfect or past progressive.
·
Affirmative: He was
writing
·
Negative: He was not
writing
·
Interrogative: Was he
writing?
·
Negative interrogative: Was
he not writing? (Wasn't he writing?)
This is typically used for two events in
parallel:
While I was washing the dishes my wife
was walking the dog.
Or for an interrupted action (the past simple
being used for the interruption):
While I was washing the dishes I heard a
loud noise.
Or when we are focussing on a point in the
middle of a longer action:
At three o'clock yesterday I was working
in the garden. (Contrast: I worked in the garden
all day yesterday.)
Or the "pluperfect"
·
Affirmative: He had
written
·
Negative: He had not /
hadn't written
·
Interrogative: Had he
written?
·
Negative interrogative: Had
he not written? (Hadn't he written?)
Or "pluperfect progressive" or
"continuous"
·
Affirmative: He had been
writing
·
Negative: He had not been
/ hadn't been writing
·
Interrogative: Had he
been writing?
·
Negative interrogative: Had
he not been writing? (Hadn't he been writing?)
Relates to the past perfect much as the
present perfect progressive relates to the present perfect, but tends to be
used with less precision.
·
Affirmative: He will
write
·
Negative: He will not /
won't write
·
Interrogative: Will he
write?
·
Negative interrogative: Will
he not write? (Won't he write?)
See the article Shall and Will for
a discussion of the two auxiliary verbs used to form the simple future in English.
There is also a future with "go" which is used especially for
intended actions, and for the weather, and generally is more common in
colloquial speech:
I'm going to write a book some day.
I think it's going to rain.
But the will future is preferred for
spontaneous decisions:
Jack: "I think we should have a
barbeque!"
Jill: "Good idea! I'll go get the
coal."
·
Affirmative: He will be
writing
·
Negative: He will not /
won't be writing
·
Interrogative: Will he be
writing?
·
Negative interrogative: Will
he not be writing? (Won't he be writing?)
Used especially to indicate that an event
will be in progress at a particular point in the future: This time tomorrow
I will be taking my driving test.
·
Affirmative: He will have
written
·
Negative: He will not /
won't have written
·
Interrogative: Will he
have written?
·
Negative interrogative: Will
he not have written? (Won't he have written?)
Used for something which will be completed by
a certain time (perfect in the literal sense) or which leads up to a point in
the future which is being focused on.
I will have finished my essay by
Thursday.
By then she will have been there for
three weeks.
Or future perfect continuous.
·
Affirmative: He will have
been writing
·
Negative: He will not /
won't have been writing
·
Interrogative: Will he
have been writing?
·
Negative interrogative: Will
he not have been writing? (Won't he have been writing?)
Or past subjunctive.
·
Affirmative: He would
write
·
Negative: He would not /
wouldn't write
·
Interrogative: Would he
write?
·
Negative interrogative: Would
he not write?
Used principally in a main clause accompanied
by an implicit or explicit doubt or "if-clause"; may refer to
conditional statements in present or future time:
I would like to pay now if it's not too
much trouble. (in present time; doubt of possibility is
explicit)
I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit)
I would do it if she asked me to. (in future time; doubt is explicit)
I would do it. (in
future time; doubt is implicit)
(A very common error by foreign learners is
to put the would into the if-clause itself. A humorous formulation of
the rule for the EFL classroom runs: "If and would you never
should, if and will makes teacher ill!" But of course, both will
and would CAN occur in an if-clause when expressing volition. A student
of English may rarely encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as
an archaic form.)
Or pluperfect subjunctive/past-perfect
subjunctive.
·
Affirmative: He would
have written
·
Negative: He would not /
wouldn't have written
·
Interrogative: Would he
have written?
·
Negative interrogative: Would
he not have written?
Used as the past tense of the conditional
form; expresses thoughts which are or may be contrary to present fact:
I would have set an extra place if I had
known you were coming. (fact that an extra place
was not set is implicit; conditional statement is explicit)
I would have set an extra place, but I
didn't because Mother said you weren't coming.
(fact that a place was not set is explicit; conditional is implicit)
I would have set an extra place. (fact that a place was not set is implicit, conditional is implicit)
The form is always identical to the
infinitive. This means that, apart from the verb "to be", it is
distinct only in the third person singular and the obsolete second person
singular.
·
Indicative: I write, thou
writest, he writes, I am
·
Subjunctive: I write,
thou write, he write, I be
Used to refer to situations which are or may
be contrary to fact in the present or future; the infactuality is rarely
explicit:
I insist that he come at once. (present time; fact that the action is not currently occuring is implicit)
I insist that he come when I call. (future time; fact that the action may or may not occur is implicit)
(The present subjunctive is often
interchangeable with the past subjunctive like so: I insist that he must
come at once.)
The use of the old term "imperfect"
shows that this form is so rare that it has not been integrated into the modern
system of English tense classification. The imperfect subjunctive is identical
to the past simple in every verb except the verb "to be". With this
verb, there is an option, but no longer a necessity, of using were
throughout ALL forms (i.e., I wish I were an Oscar Meyer weiner, vs. I
wish I was a girl).
·
Indicative: I was
·
Subjunctive: traditionally I
were but now more commonly I was.
·
If I were rich, I would retire
to the South of
An auxiliary verb is
a verb that accompanies a main verb to indicate the tense, voice, mood, number, or person where this is not indicated by
inflection:
The concert was
enjoyed by all.
You will drown in
a sea of homework if you do not work
harder.
The auxiliary verb is also known as the
helping verb.
An adjective
modifies a noun or
a pronoun
by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes
the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted
words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped
balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen
walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat
foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark
and dank.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas
music.
A battered music
box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large,
yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb,
or by a phrase
or clause
functioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned
mittens.
for example, the adverb ``intricately''
modifies the adjective ``patterned.''
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases
can also act as adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled
sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles
(``the,'' ``a,'' ``an'') to be adjectives.
A possessive
adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,'' ``our,''
``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun;
however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase,
as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my
assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective
``my'' modifies ``assignment'' and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions
as an object.
Note that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun or
noun phrase.
What is your phone
number.
Here the possessive adjective ``your'' is
used to modify the noun phrase ``phone number''; the entire noun phrase ``your
phone number'' is a subject complement.
Note that the possessive pronoun form ``yours'' is not used to modify a noun or
a noun phrase.
The bakery sold his
favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective
``his'' modifies the noun phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire
noun phrase ``his favourite type of bread'' is the direct object
of the verb ``sold.''
After many years, she returned to her
homeland.
Here the possessive adjective ``her''
modifies the noun ``homeland'' and the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the
object of the preposition
``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or noun
phrases.
We have lost our way in
this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective
``our'' modifies ``way'' and the noun phrase ``our way'' is the direct object
of the compound verb
``have lost''. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``ours'' is not used to
modify nouns or noun phrases.
In many fairy tales, children are
neglected by their parents.
Here the possessive adjective ``their''
modifies ``parents'' and the noun phrase ``their parents'' is the object of the
preposition ``by.'' Note that the possessive pronoun form ``theirs'' is not
used to modify nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball
down the stairs and into the backyard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective
``its'' modifies ``ball'' and the noun phrase ``its ball'' is the object of the
verb ``chased.'' Note that ``its'' is the possessive adjective and ``it's'' is
a contraction
for ``it is.''
The demonstrative
adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,'' and ``what''
are identical to the demonstrative
pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun
phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that
cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective
``that'' modifies the noun ``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the
object of the preposition ``over.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the
noun phrase ``this apartment'' is the subject
of the sentence.
Even though my friend preferred those
plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause,
``those'' modifies ``plates'' and the noun phrase ``those plates'' is the
object of the verb ``preferred.'' In the independent clause,
``these'' is the direct object of the verb ``bought.''
Note that the relationship between a
demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the
relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to
that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative
pronoun.
An interrogative
adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative pronoun,
except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own:
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used
to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants''
and the noun phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb
``should be watered'':
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book''
and the noun phrase ``what book'' is the direct object of the compound verb
``are reading.''
An indefinite
adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun,
except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrasé́́́́, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations
are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies
the noun ``people'' and the noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the
sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives
after you have moved to
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the
noun ``mail'' and the noun phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the
compound verb ``will send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly
up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective
modifies the noun ``goldfish'' and the noun phrase is the direct object of the
verb ``found'':
The title of Kelly's favourite game is
``All dogs go to heaven.''
Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies
``dogs'' and the full title is a subject complement.
́́́́ THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
There are three degrees
of comparison:
POSITIVE
degree, COMPARATIVE
degree, SUPERLATIVE
degree:
POSITIVE |
COMPARATIVE |
SUPERLATIVE |
cool |
cooler |
coolest |
intelligent |
more intelligent |
most intelligent |
01.
COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY
AS .... AS (for positive
comparisons),
(NOT) SO .... AS (for negative comparisons).
Her pronunciation is AS good AS
yours.
His pronunciation is NOT SO good AS yours.
Note: We may
say
02.
COMPARATIVE OF INFERIORITY
LESS ..... THAN + the adjective.
It is LESS cold
today THAN
it was yesterday.
Kelly is LESS
old THAN Sandra.
03.
SUPERLATIVE OF INFERIORITY
THE LEAST
....... OF
(or IN) + the adjective.
Sunday was THE LEAST cold
day of the week.
Christina is THE
LEAST old girl in that class.
04.
COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE OF SUPERIORITY
a)
Monosyllabic
adjectives form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE
by adding - ER
and - EST
to the POSITIVE degree.
Tall |
tallER THAN |
THE tallEST |
Warm |
warmER THAN |
THE warmEST |
Exceptions:
Just |
MORE just THAN |
THE MOST just |
Right |
MORE right THAN |
THE MOST right |
Real |
MORE real THAN |
THE MOST real |
Wrong |
MORE wrong THAN |
THE MOST wrong |
b)
Adjectives
with more
than two syllables form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE
by putting MORE
and THE MOST
in front of the adjective.
Difficult |
MORE difficult THAN |
THE MOST difficult |
important |
MORE important THAN |
THE MOST important |
c) Disyllabic
(two syllables) adjectives form their COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE
in two
different ways:
1.
Adjectives ending in ED, ING, RE, FUL, OUS and those
with the stress
on the first syllable usually take MORE and THE MOST:
charming |
MORE charming THAN |
THE MOST charming |
famous |
MORE famous THAN |
THE MOST famous |
hopeful |
MORE hopeful THAN |
THE MOST hopeful |
learned |
MORE learned THAN |
THE MOST learned |
obscure |
MORE obscure THAN |
THE MOST obscure |
2. Adjectives ending in ER, Y, LE, OW and those with the stress on the second
syllable add ER and EST to the
POSITIVE degree.
clever |
cleverER THAN |
THE cleverEST |
narrow |
narrowER THAN |
THE narrowEST |
pretty |
prettiER THAN |
THE prettiEST |
polite |
politER THAN |
THE politEST |
simple |
simplER THAN |
THE simplEST |
Note:
Adjectives ending in SOME and the words cheerful, common, cruel, pleasant, quiet,
civil may be compared by adding ER and EST or by MORE and MOST.
pleasant |
pleasantER THAN |
THE pleasantEST |
or
pleasant |
MORE pleasant THAN |
THE MOST pleasant |
05. ORTHOGRAPHIC NOTES
a) Add R and ST to
adjectives ending in E.
large |
largeR THAN |
THE largeST |
ripe |
ripeR THAN |
THE ripeST |
b) VOWEL SANDWICH
(VOWEL + CONSONANT + VOWEL) (THE LAST
VOWEL IS DOUBLED)
big |
bigGER THAN |
THE bigGEST |
fat |
fatTER THAN |
THE fatTEST |
NO
small |
smallER THAN |
THE smallEST |
sweet |
sweetER THAN |
THE sweetEST |
c) Adjectives ending in -
y
preceded by a consonant, change Y into I
before ER
and EST.
happY |
happIER THAN |
THE happIEST |
Exceptions:
shY |
shYER THAN |
THE shYEST |
gaY |
gaYER THAN |
THE gaYEST |
greY |
greYER THAN |
THE greYEST |
6. IRREGULAR
COMPARISONS
good |
better than |
the best |
bad |
worse than |
the worst |
little |
less than |
the least |
much |
more than |
the most |
many |
more than |
the most |
far |
farther than |
the farthest |
far |
further than |
the furthest |
old |
older than |
the oldest |
old |
elder than |
the eldest |
NOTES:
1. FARTHER and FARTHEST generally refer to distance;
FURTHER and FURTHEST also refer to distance but they may have the meaning of
"additional".
I live farther from here than
you do.
Give me further details.
2. OLDER and OLDEST refer
to persons or things; ELDER and ELDEST can only be used for members of the same
family:
My elder sister is afraid of
mice.
My older friend is afraid of
wasps.
but ELDER can not be placed before THAN so OLDER is used:
My sister is two years older
than I am.
7. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARATIVES
a) Gradual increase:
Those exercises are getting EASIER AND EASIER.
OR
Those exercises are getting MORE AND MORE EASY.
The weather is getting NICER AND NICER.
OR
The weather is getting MORE AND MORE NICE.
The rent of our flat is
getting MORE
AND MORE EXPENSIVE.
B) Parallel increase: (THE + comparative ...... THE + comparative).
THE MORE I see you THE MORE I want you.
THE HOTTER, THE BETTER.
THE MORE
he studies, THE
BETTER he becomes.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
1. COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE of SUPERIORITY.
a)
Monosyllabic
adverbs from their comparative and superlative of superiority
in the same
way as monosyllabic adjectives.
high |
highER THAN |
THE highEST |
soon |
soonER THAN |
THE soonEST |
fast |
fastER THAN |
THE fastEST |
b)
Adverbs of more
than one syllable take MORE and MOST.
quickly |
MORE quickly THAN |
THE MOST quickly |
slowly |
MORE slowly THAN |
THE MOST slowly |
seldom |
MORE seldom THAN |
THE MOST seldom |
Exception:
early |
earliER THAN |
THE earliEST |
2. IRREGULAR
COMPARISONS
well |
better than |
the best |
badly |
worse than |
the worst |
little |
less than |
the least |
much |
more than |
the most |
late |
later than |
the last |
WORD
ORDER
Declarative Sentences
Subject |
Predicate |
Object |
Adverbial Modifier of |
||||
indirect |
direct |
prepo-sitional |
manner |
place |
Time |
||
Our guide |
speaks |
|
English |
|
fluently |
|
|
Наш гід |
роз-мовляє |
|
англійською |
|
вільно |
|
|
My sister |
sent |
me |
a telegram |
|
|
|
Yesterday |
Моя сестра |
на-діслала |
мені |
телеграму |
|
|
|
Вчора |
Mother |
bought |
|
a dress |
for her |
|
in a boutique |
|
Мати |
купила |
|
сукню |
для неї |
|
в магазині |
|
Negative Sentences
Subject |
Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb + not |
Verb |
Object and adverbial modifier |
My friend |
does not |
leave for |
Spain tonight |
Мій товариш |
Не |
від’їжджає до |
Іспанії сьогодні ввечері |
He |
did not |
like |
coffee with sugar in it |
Він |
Не |
любив |
кави з цукром |
You |
should not |
do |
that again |
Ти |
не повинен |
робити |
цього більше |
General Questions
(General questions require the answer yes
or no)
Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb |
Subject |
Verb |
Object and adverbial
modifier |
Does |
Sugar |
dissolve |
in water? |
|
Цукор |
розчиняється |
у воді? |
Could |
I |
take |
your pen? |
Можна |
мені |
взяти |
вашу ручку? |
Have |
the students |
coped |
with all difficulties? |
|
Студенти |
подолали |
всі труднощі? |
Special Questions
(Special questions refer to a various parts of the
sentence)
Interrogative word |
Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb |
Subject |
Verb |
Object and adverbial
modifier |
Where |
did |
she |
get |
my address? |
Де |
|
Вона |
дістала |
мою адресу? |
Who |
|
|
goes |
to the cinema? |
Хто |
|
|
йде |
у кіно? |
When |
was |
the castle |
built? |
|
Коли |
|
цей замок |
збудований? |
|
How long |
have |
you |
known |
him? |
Як довго |
|
Ви |
знаєте |
його? |
Alternative Questions
(Alternative questions imply choice and consist of two
parts connected by the conjunction or)
Interrogative word |
Auxiliary Verb / Modal Verb |
Subject |
Verb |
Object and adverbial
modifier |
|
Did |
He |
start learning |
Spanish or French? |
|
|
Він |
почав вивчати |
іспанську чи французьку мову? |
Who |
|
|
invented |
the steam engine: James Watt or Thomas
Edison? |
Хто |
|
|
винайшов |
паровий двигун: Джеймс Ватт чи
Томас Едісон? |
What time |
does |
she |
have breakfast: |
at 7 or |
О котрій годині |
|
Вона |
снідає: |
о 7 чи 8 вранці? |
Question Tags
(Question
tags sconsist of two parts. The first part is a declarative sentence, the second
– a short general question. The second part consists of the subject expressed
by personal pronoun corresponding to the subject of the first part and of the
auxiliary or modal verb. If the first part of the question is positive, the
second is negative and vice versa)
Subject |
Auxiliary
Verb / Modal Verb and not |
Verb |
Object and adverbial
modifiers |
Short general question |
Your brother |
|
works |
there, |
does not he? |
Ваш брат |
|
працює |
там, |
чи не так? |
Jane |
did not |
say |
that, |
did she? |
Джейн |
не |
казала |
цього, |
чи не так? |
Tom and Ted |
are |
coming |
tonight, |
are not they? |
Том і Тед |
|
приїжджають |
сьогодні ввечері, |
чи не так? |
They |
cannot |
remember |
clearly what happened, |
can they? |
Вони |
не |
пригадують |
точно, що трапилось, |
чи не так? |
Table of Irregular Verbs
be [bJ] |
was
[wOz], were [wW] |
been [bJn] |
бути |
become [bi'kAm] |
became [bi'keim] |
become [bi'kAm] |
ставати |
begin [bi'gin] |
began [bi'gxn] |
Begun [bi'gAn] |
починати |
bring [brIN] |
brought [brLt] |
brought [brLt] |
приносити |
build [bild] |
built [blt] |
built [blt] |
будувати |
buy [bai] |
bought
[bLt] |
bought
[bLt] |
купувати |
come [kAm] |
came [keim] |
Come [kAm] |
приходити |
cut [kAt] |
cut [kAt] |
cut [kAt] |
різати |
deal [dJl] |
dealt
[delt] |
Dealt [delt]] |
мати справу |
do [dH] |
did
[did] |
done [dAn] |
робити |
drink [driNk] |
drank
[drxNk] |
drunk
[dANk] |
пити |
eat [Jt] |
ate
[et] [eit] |
eaten
['Jt(q)n] |
їсти |
fall [fLl] |
fell
[fel] |
Fallen ['fLlqn] |
падати |
feel [fJl] |
felt
[felt] |
felt
[felt] |
відчувати |
fight [fait] |
fought
[fLt] |
fought
[fLt] |
змагатися |
find [faind] |
found
[faund] |
found
[faund] |
знаходити |
fly [flai] |
flew
[flu:] |
Flown [flqun] |
літати |
Forget [fq'get] |
forgot
[fq'gOt] |
forgotten
[fq'gOtn] |
забувати |
get [get] |
got
[gOt] |
got
[gOt] |
одержувати |
give [giv] |
gave
[geiv] |
Given
['giv(q)n] |
давати |
go [gqu] |
went
[went] |
gone [gOn] |
ходити |
have [hxv] |
had
[hxd] |
had
[hxd] |
мати |
hear [hiq] |
heard
[hWd] |
heard
[hWd] |
чути |
keep [kJp] |
kept
[kept] |
kept
[kept] |
зберігати |
know [nqu] |
knew
[nju:] |
known
[nqun] |
знати |
learn [lWn] |
learnt
[lWnt] |
learnt
[lWnt] |
учити |
leave [lJv] |
left
[left] |
left
[left] |
залишати |
lie [lai] |
lay [lei] |
lain [lein] |
лежати |
make [meik] |
made
[meid] |
Made
[meid] |
робити |
meet [mJt] |
met
[met] |
met
[met] |
зустрічати |
pay [pei] |
paid
[peid] |
paid
[peid] |
платити |
put [put] |
put
[put] |
put
[put] |
класти |
read [rJd] |
read
[red] |
read
[red] |
читати |
ring [riN] |
rang
[rxN] |
Rung
[rAN] |
дзвонити |
rise [raiz] |
rose
[rquz] |
Risen
['riz(q)n] |
піднімати |
run [rAn] |
ran
[rxn] |
run [rAn] |
бігати |
say [sei] |
said
[sed] |
said
[sed] |
сказати |
see [sJ] |
saw
[sL] |
seen
[sJn] |
бачити |
sell [sel] |
sold
[squld] |
sold
[squld] |
продавати |
send [send] |
sent
[sent] |
sent
[sent] |
посилати |
show [Squ] |
showed
[Squd] |
showed
[Squd] |
показувати |
sing [siN] |
sang
[sxN] |
Sung
[sAN] |
співати |
sit [sit] |
sat
[sxt] |
sat
[sxt] |
сидіти |
speak [spJk] |
spoke
[spquk] |
spoken
['spquk(q)n] |
говорити |
spend [spend] |
spent
[spent] |
spent [spent |
витрачати |
stand [stxnd] |
stood
[stu:d] |
stood
[stu:d] |
стояти |
take [teik] |
took
[tuk] |
Taken ['teik(q)n] |
брати |
teach [tJC] |
taught
[tLt] |
taught
[tLt] |
учити |
tell [tel] |
told
[tquld] |
told
[tquld] |
розказувати |
think [TiNk] |
thought
[TLt] |
thought
[TLt] |
думати |
understand ["Andq'stxnd] |
understood
["Andq'stud] |
understood
["Andq'stud] |
розуміти |
wake [weik] |
woke
[wquk] |
woken
['wquk(q)n] |
прокидатися |
write [rait] |
wrote
[rqut] |
written
['rit(q)n] |
писати |
ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation or symbol |
Meaning |
Translation |
n |
noun |
іменник |
v |
verb |
дієслово |
adj |
adjective |
прикметник |
adv |
adverb |
прислівник |
prep |
preposition |
прийменник |
pl |
plural |
множина |
e.g. |
скорочено від “exempli gratia” |
наприклад |
i.e. |
скорочено від “id est |
тобто |
Ab |
antibody |
антитіло |
ABc |
antibiotic |
антибіотик |
ad lib |
as
desired; at one’s pleasure |
на свій
розсуд; за бажанням |
ad us. ext |
for external use |
для зовнішнього використання |
adv |
against |
всупереч ;
проти, навпроти |
ag |
antigen |
антиген |
AIDS |
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome |
синдром набутого імунного дефіциту, СНІД |
alt hor |
every other hour |
через годину |
ASAP |
as soon as possible |
якомога швидше |
at wt (AW) |
atomic weight |
атомна маса |
ax |
axis |
Вісь |
b |
blood |
кров |
BC |
blood count |
аналіз крові |
b.i.d |
twice a day |
двічі на день |
BP |
blood pressure |
кров’яний тиск |
Bx |
biopsy |
біопсія |
C |
calorie |
калорія, мала калорія |
cc |
cell count |
підрахунок кров’яних тілець |
c.c. |
cubic centimetre |
кубічний сантиметр |
C.C. |
chief complaint |
головна скарга |
cm |
centimetre |
сантиметр |
CNS |
central nervous system |
центральна нервова система |
c/o |
complains of |
скарги на |
dl |
decilitre |
децилітр |
DU |
duodenal ulcer |
виразка дванадцятипалої кишки |
DM |
diabetes mellitus |
діабет, цукрова хвороба |
DNA |
deoxyribonucleic acid |
ДНК |
Dx |
diagnosis |
діагноз |
dz |
disease |
хвороба |
ED |
effective dose |
ефективна доза |
ECG (EKG) |
electrocardiogram |
електрокардіограма |
ENT |
ear, nose and throat |
вухо, ніс
і горло |
ER |
endoplasmic reticulum |
ендоплазматичний ретикулум |
FB |
foreign body |
чужорідне
тіло |
Fc |
fragment |
фрагмент; обривок; уламок; осколок |
FH |
family history |
сімейний анамнез |
g |
gram |
грам |
grad. |
by steps, gradually |
поступово, мало-помалу; послідовно |
GU |
genitourinary |
сечостатевий |
Hgb |
haemoglobin |
гемоглобін |
HIV |
human immunodeficiency virus |
вірус імунодефіциту людини |
HR |
heart rate |
частота серцебиття |
HS |
heart sounds |
Тони серця |
Hx |
history |
історія |
Ig |
immunoglobulin |
імуноглобулін |
in d |
daily |
щодня, щоденно |
kg |
kilogram |
кілограм |
l |
litre |
Літр |
mg |
milligram |
міліграм |
min |
minute |
хвилина |
ml |
millilitre |
мілілітр |
mm |
millimetre |
міліметр |
N |
nerve |
нерв |
noc |
night |
Ніч |
N & V |
nausea and vomiting |
нудота і блювання |
O2 |
oxygen |
кисень |
OB |
occult blood |
прихована кров |
OH |
occupational history |
професійний анамнез |
OPD |
outpatient department |
амбулаторне відділення |
P |
pressure |
Тиск |
P & A |
percussion and auscultation |
перкусія (вистукування) і
вислухування |
pc |
after a meal |
після прийняття їжі |
PH |
past history |
анамнез |
PI |
history of present illness |
анамнез захворювання, історія
теперішнього захворювання |
PMH |
past medical history |
історія хвороби, анамнез |
PO |
by mouth |
перорально |
pt |
patient |
пацієнт |
qd |
every day |
щодня |
qh |
every hour |
щогодини |
qid |
four times a day |
чотири рази на день |
qod |
every other day |
через день |
resp |
respiratory |
респіраторний, дихальний |
RNA |
ribonucleic acid |
РНК |
Rx |
therapy, treatment |
лікування |
s & s |
signs and symptoms |
ознаки і симптоми |
t |
temperature |
температура |
TB |
tuberculosis |
туберкульоз |
tid |
three times a day |
тричі на день |
U |
unit |
одиниця; ціле; відділ |
UTI |
urinary tract infection |
інфекція сечового тракту |
VC |
vital capacity |
життєва ємність |
wk |
week |
тиждень |
WNL |
within normal limits |
у межах норми |
wt |
weight |
вага; маса |
x |
except |
за винятком, крім |
Y |
year |
рік |
Glossary of Dental Health Terms
|
abscess:
an infection of a tooth, soft tissue, or bone. |
abutment:
tooth or teeth on either side of a missing tooth that support a fixed or
removable bridge. |
acrylic
resin: the plastic widely used in dentistry. |
|
adjustment:
a modification made upon a dental prosthesis after it has been completed and
inserted into the mouth. |
air
abrasion/micro abrasion: a drill-free technique
that blasts the tooth surface with air and an abrasive. This is a relatively
new technology that may avoid the need for an anesthetic and can be used to
remove tooth decay, old composite restorations and superficial stains and discolorations,
and prepare a tooth surface for bonding or sealants. |
alveolar
bone: the bone surrounding the root of the tooth,
anchoring it in place; loss of this bone is typically associated with severe
periodontal (gum) disease. |
amalgam:
a common filling material used to repair cavities. The material, also known
as "silver fillings," contains mercury in combination with silver,
tin, copper, and sometimes zinc. |
anaerobic
bacteria: bacteria that do not need oxygen to grow;
they are generally associated with periodontal disease (see below). |
analgesia:
a state of pain relief; an agent for lessening pain. |
anesthesia:
a type of medication that results in partial or complete elimination of pain
sensation; numbing a tooth is an example of local anesthesia; general
anesthesia produces partial or complete unconsciousness. |
antibiotic:
a drug that stops or slows the growth of bacteria. |
antiseptic:
a chemical agent that can be applied to living tissues to destroy germs. |
apex:
the tip of the root of a tooth. |
appliance:
any removable dental restoration or orthodontic device. |
arch:
a description of the alignment of the upper or lower teeth. |
baby bottle
tooth decay: decay in infants and children,
most often affecting the upper front teeth, caused by sweetened liquids given
and left clinging to the teeth for long periods (for example, in feeding
bottles or pacifiers). Also called early childhood carries. |
bicuspid:
the fourth and fifth teeth from the center of the mouth to the back of the
mouth. These are the back teeth that are used for chewing; they only have two
points (cusps). Adults have eight bicuspids (also called premolars), two in
front of each group of molars. |
biofeedback:
a relaxation technique that involves learning how to better cope with pain
and stress by altering behavior, thoughts, and feelings. |
biopsy:
removal of a small piece of tissue for diagnostic examination. |
bite:
relationship of the upper and lower teeth upon closure (occlusion). |
bite-wing:
a single X-ray that shows upper and lower teeth teeth (from crown to about
the level of the supporting bone) in a select area on the same film. |
bleaching:
chemical or laser treatment of natural teeth that uses peroxide to produce
the whitening effect. |
bonding:
the covering of a tooth surface with a tooth-colored composite to repair
and/or change the color or shape of a tooth, for instance, due to stain or
damage. |
bone
resorption: decrease in the amount of bone
supporting the roots of teeth; a common result of periodontal (gum) disease. |
braces:
devices (bands, wires, ceramic appliances) put in place by orthodontists to
gradually reposition teeth to a more favorable alignment. |
bridge:
stationary dental prosthesis (appliance) fixed to teeth adjacent to a space;
replaces one or more missing teeth, cemented or bonded to supporting teeth or
implants adjacent to the space. Also called a fixed partial denture. |
bruxism:
grinding or gnashing of the teeth, most commonly during sleep. |
calcium:
an element needed for the development of healthy teeth, bones, and nerves. |
calculus:
hard, calcium-like deposits that form on teeth due to inadequate plaque control,
often stained yellow or brown. Also called "tartar." |
canker
sore: sores or small shallow ulcers that appear in
the mouth and often make eating and talking uncomfortable; they typically
appear in people between the ages of 10 and 20 and last about a week in
duration before disappearing. |
cap:
common term for a dental crown. |
caries:
tooth decay or "cavities." A dental infection caused by toxins
produced by bacteria. |
cementum:
hard tissue that covers the roots of teeth. |
clasp:
device that holds a removable partial denture to stationary teeth. |
cleaning:
removal of plaque and calculus (tarter) from teeth, generally above the gum
line. |
cleft
lip: a physical split or separation of the two sides of
the upper lip that appears as a narrow opening or gap in the skin of the
upper lip. This separation often extends beyond the base of the nose and
includes the bones of the upper jaw and/or upper gum. |
cleft
palate: a split or opening in the roof of the mouth. |
composite
resin filling: tooth-colored restorative
material composed of plastic with small glass or ceramic particles; usually
"cured" or hardened with filtered light or chemical catalyst. An
alternative to silver amalgam fillings. |
conventional
denture: a denture that is ready for placement in the
mouth about eight to 12 weeks after the teeth have been removed. |
cosmetic
(aesthetic) dentistry: a branch of dentistry under which
treatments are performed to enhance the color and shape of teeth. |
crown:
(1) the portion of a tooth above the gum line that is covered by enamel; (2)
dental restoration covering all or most of the natural tooth; the artificial
cap can be made of porcelain, composite, or metal and is cemented on top of
the damaged tooth. |
cuspids:
the third tooth from the center of the mouth to the back of the mouth. These
are the front teeth that have one rounded or pointed edge used for biting.
Also known as canines. |
cusps:
the high points on the chewing surfaces of the back teeth. |
cyst:
an abnormal sac containing gas, fluid, or a semisolid material. |
DDS:
Doctor of Dental Surgery -- equivalent to DMD, Doctor of Dental Medicine. |
decay:
destruction of tooth structure caused by toxins produced by bacteria. |
deciduous
teeth: commonly called "baby teeth" or
primary teeth; the first set of (usually) 20 teeth. |
demineralization:
loss of mineral from tooth enamel just below the surface in a carious lesion;
usually appears as a white area on the tooth surface. |
dentin:
inner layer of tooth structure, immediately under the surface enamel. |
denture:
a removable replacement of artificial teeth for missing natural teeth and
surrounding tissues. Two types of dentures are available -- complete and
partial. Complete dentures are used when all the teeth are missing, while
partial dentures are used when some natural teeth remain. |
DMD:
Doctor of Medical Dentistry; equivalent to DDS, Doctor of Dental Surgery. |
dry
mouth: a condition in which the flow of saliva is
reduced and there is not enough saliva to keep the mouth moist. Dry mouth can
be the result of certain medications (such as antihistamines and
decongestants), certain diseases (such as Sjögren's syndrome, HIV/AIDS,
Alzheimer's disease, diabetes), certain medical treatments (such as head and
neck radiation), as well as nerve damage, dehydration, tobacco use, and
surgical removal of the salivary glands. Also called xerostomia. |
dry
socket: a common complication that occurs when either
a blood clot has failed to form in an extracted tooth socket or else the
blood clot that did form has been dislodged. |
edentulous: having no teeth. |
enamel:
the hard, mineralized material that covers the outside portion of the tooth
that lies above the gum line (the crown). |
endodontics:
a field of dentistry concerned with the biology and pathology of the dental
pulp and root tissues of the tooth and with the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of diseases and injuries of these tissues. A root canal is a
commonly performed endodontic procedure. |
endodontist:
a dental specialist concerned with the causes, diagnosis, prevention, and
treatment of diseases and injuries of the human dental pulp or the nerve of
the tooth. |
eruption:
the emergence of the tooth from its position in the jaw. |
extraction:
removal of a tooth. |
filling:
restoration of lost tooth structure with metal, porcelain, or resin
materials. |
fistula:
channel emanating pus from an infection site; a gum boil. |
flap
surgery: lifting of gum tissue to expose and clean
underlying tooth and bone structures. |
flossing:
a thread-like material used to clean between the contact areas of teeth; part
of a good daily oral hygiene plan. |
fluoride:
a mineral that helps strengthen teeth enamel making teeth less susceptible to
decay. Fluoride is ingested through food or water, is available in most toothpastes, or can be applied as a gel or liquid to the
surface of teeth by a dentist. |
fluorosis:
discoloration of the enamel due to too much fluoride ingestion (greater than
one part per million) into the bloodstream, also called enamel mottling. |
general
dentist: the primary care dental provider. This
dentist diagnoses, treats, and manages overall oral health care needs,
including gum care, root canals, fillings, crowns, veneers, bridges, and
preventive education. |
gingiva:
the soft tissue that surrounds the base of the teeth; the pink tissue around
the teeth. |
gingivectomy:
surgical removal of gum tissue. |
gingivitis:
inflamed, swollen, and reddish gum tissue that may bleed easily when touched
or brushed. It is the first step in a series of events that begins with
plaque build up in the mouth and may end -- if not properly treated -- with
periodontitis and tooth loss due to destruction of the tissue that surrounds
and supports the teeth. |
gingivoplasty:
a procedure performed by periodontists to reshape the gum tissue. |
gold
fillings: an alternative to silver amalgam fillings. |
gum
recession: exposure of dental roots due to shrinkage of
the gums as a result of abrasion, periodontal disease, or surgery. |
gutta
percha: material used in the filling of root canals. |
halitosis:
bad breath of oral or gastrointestinal origin. |
handpiece:
the instrument used to hold and revolve burs in dental operations. |
hard
palate: the bony front portion of the roof of the
mouth. |
hygienist:
a licensed, auxiliary dental professional who is both an oral health educator
and clinician who uses preventive, therapeutic, and educational methods to
control oral disease. |
hypersensitivity:
a sharp, sudden painful reaction in teeth when exposed to hot, cold, sweet,
sour, salty, chemical, or mechanical stimuli. |
immediate
denture: a complete or partial denture that is made in
advance and can be positioned as soon as the natural teeth are removed. |
impacted
tooth: a tooth that is partially or completely
blocked from erupting through the surface of the gum. An impacted tooth may
push other teeth together or damage the bony structures supporting the
adjacent tooth. Often times, impacted teeth must be surgically removed. |
implant:
a metal rod (usually made of titanium) that is surgically placed into the
upper or lower jawbone where a tooth is missing; it serves as the tooth root
and anchor for the crown, bridge, or denture that is placed over it. |
impression:
mold made of the teeth and soft tissues. |
incision
and drainage: surgical incision of an abscess
to drain pus. |
incisors:
four upper and four lower front teeth, excluding the cuspids (canine teeth).
These teeth are used primarily for biting and cutting. |
inlay:
similar to a filling but the entire work lies within the cusps (bumps) on the
chewing surface of the tooth. |
jawbone:
The hard bone that supports the face and includes alveolar bone, which
anchors the teeth. |
leukoplakia:
a white or gray patch that develops on the tongue or the inside of the cheek.
It is the mouth's reaction to chronic irritation of the mucous membranes of
the mouth. |
malocclusion:
"bad bite" or misalignment of the teeth or jaws. |
mandible:
the lower jaw. |
maxilla:
the upper jaw. |
mercury:
a metal component of amalgam fillings. |
molars:
three back teeth in each dental quadrant used for grinding food. |
mouth
guard: a soft-fitted device that is inserted into
the mouth and worn over the teeth to protect them against impact or injury. |
muscle
relaxant: a type of medication often prescribed to
reduce stress. |
nerve:
tissue that conveys sensation, temperature, and position information to the
brain. |
nerve
(root) canal: dental pulp; the internal chamber
of a tooth where the nerves and blood vessels pass. |
night
guard: a removable acrylic appliance that fits over
the upper and lower teeth used to prevent wear and temporomandibular damage
caused by grinding or gnashing of the teeth during sleep. |
nitrous
oxide: a gas (also called laughing gas) used to
reduce patient anxiety. |
NSAID:
a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, often used as a dental analgesic. |
occlusal
X-rays: an X-ray showing full tooth development and
placement. Each X-ray reveals the entire arch of teeth in either the upper or
lower jaw. |
occlusion:
the relationship of the upper and lower teeth when the mouth is closed. |
onlay:
a type of restoration (filling) made of metal, porcelain, or acrylic that is
more extensive than an inlay in that it covers one or more cusps. Onlays are
sometimes called partial crowns. |
oral
cavity: the mouth. |
oral and
maxillofacial radiologist: the oral health care
provider who specializes in the production and interpretation of all types of
X-ray images and data that are used in the diagnosis and management of diseases,
disorders, and conditions of the oral and maxillofacial region. |
oral
and maxillofacial surgery: surgical procedures on the
mouth including extractions, removal of cysts or tumors, and repair of
fractured jaws. |
oral
hygiene: process of maintaining cleanliness of the
teeth and related structures. |
oral
medicine: the specialty of dentistry that provides for
the care of the medically complex patient through the integration of medicine
and oral health care. |
oral
pathologist: the oral health care provider who
studies the causes of diseases that alter or affect the oral structures
(teeth, lips, cheeks, jaws) as well as parts of the face and neck. |
oral
surgeon: the oral health care provider who performs
many types of surgical procedures in and around the entire face, mouth, and
jaw area. |
orthodontics:
dental specialty that using braces, retainers, and other dental devices to
treat misalignment of teeth, restoring them to proper functioning. |
orthodontist:
the oral health provider who specializes in diagnosis, prevention,
interception, and treatment of malocclusions, or "bad bites," of
the teeth and surrounding structures. This is the specialist whose
responsibility it is to straighten teeth by movement of the teeth through
bone by the use of bands, wires, braces, and other fixed or removable
corrective appliances or retainers. |
overbite:
an excessive protrusion of the upper jaw resulting in a vertical overlap of
the front teeth. |
overjet:
an excessive protrusion of the upper jaw resulting in a horizontal overlap of
the front teeth. |
overdenture:
denture that fits over residual roots or dental implants. |
palate:
hard and soft tissue forming the roof of the mouth. |
panoramic
X-ray: a type of X-ray that shows a complete two
dimensional representation of all the teeth in the mouth. This X-ray also
shows the relationship of the teeth to the jaws and the jaws to the head. |
partial
denture: a removable appliance that replaces some of
the teeth in either the upper or lower jaw. |
pathology:
study of disease. |
pedodontics
or pediatric dentistry: dental specialty focusing on
treatment of infants, children, and young adults. |
pedodontist/pediatric
dentist: the oral health care provider who specializes
in the diagnosis and treatment of the dental problems of children from
infancy to young adulthood. This provider also usually cares for special
needs patients. |
periapical:
region at the end of the roots of teeth. |
periapical
X-rays: X-rays providing complete side views from the
roots to the crowns of the teeth. |
periodontal
ligament: The connective tissue that surrounds the
tooth (specifically covering the cementum) and connects the tooth to the jawbone,
holding it in place. |
periodontist:
the dental specialist who specializes in diagnosing, treating, and preventing
diseases of the soft tissues of the mouth (the gums) and the supporting
structures (bones) of the teeth (both natural and man-made teeth). |
periodontitis:
a more advanced stage of periodontal disease in which the inner layer of the
gum and bone pull away from the teeth and form pockets and alveolar bone is
destroyed. |
periodontium:
The tissue that lines the socket into which the root of the tooth fits. |
permanent
teeth: the teeth that replace the deciduous or
primary teeth -- also called baby teeth. There are (usually) 32 adult teeth in a complete dentition. |
plaque:
a colorless, sticky film composed of undigested food particles mixed with
saliva and bacteria that constantly forms on the teeth. Plaque left alone
eventually turns in to tartar or calculus and is the main factor in causing
dental caries and periodontal disease. |
pontic:
a replacement tooth mounted on a fixed or removal appliance. |
porcelain:
a tooth-colored, sand-like material; much like enamel in appearance. |
porcelain
crown: all porcelain restoration covering the
coronal portion of tooth (above the gum line). |
porcelain
fused to metal (PFM) crown: restoration with metal
caping (for strength) covered by porcelain (for appearance). |
porcelain
inlay or onlay: tooth-colored restoration made of
porcelain, cemented or bonded in place. |
post:
thin metal rod inserted into the root of a tooth after root canal therapy;
provides retention for a capping that replaces lost tooth structure. |
pregnancy
gingivitis: gingivitis that develops during
pregnancy. The hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy -- especially the
increased level of progesterone -- may make it easier for certain
gingivitis-causing bacteria to grow as well as make gum tissue more sensitive
to plaque and exaggerate the body's response to the toxins (poisons) that
result from plaque. |
pregnancy
tumors: an extreme inflammatory reaction to a local
irritation (such as food particles or plaque) that occurs in up to 10% of
pregnant women and often in women who also have pregnancy gingivitis.
Pregnancy tumors appear on inflamed gum tissue as large lumps with deep red
pinpoint markings on it, usually near the upper gum line. The red lump
glistens, may bleed and crust over, and can make eating and speaking
difficult and cause discomfort. |
primary
teeth: the first set of 20 temporary teeth. Also called
baby teeth, the primary dentition, or deciduous teeth,
normally fall out one by one between 6 and 12 years of age. |
prophylaxis:
the cleaning of the teeth for the prevention of periodontal disease and tooth
decay. |
prosthetics:
a fixed or removable appliance used to replace missing teeth (for example,
bridges, partials, and dentures). |
prosthodontist:
a dental specialist who is skilled in restoring or replacing teeth with fixed
or removable prostheses (appliances), maintaining proper occlusion; treats
facial deformities with artificial prostheses such as eyes, ears, and noses. |
pulp:
the living part of the tooth, located inside the dentin. Pulp contains the
nerve tissue and blood vessels that supply nutrients to the tooth. |
radiographic:
refers to X-rays. |
radio
wave therapy: a therapy involving the use of
low level electrical stimulation to increase blood flow and provide pain
relief. In dentistry, this is one type of therapy that can be applied to the joint
of individuals with temporomandibular disorder. |
recontouring:
a procedure in which small amounts of tooth enamel are removed to change a
tooth's length, shape, or surface. Also called odontoplasty, enameloplasty,
stripping, or slenderizing. |
remineralization:
redeposition or replacement of the tooth's minerals into a demineralized
(previously decayed) lesion. This reverses the decay process, and is enhanced
by the presence of topical fluoride. |
restorations:
any replacement for lost tooth structure or teeth; for example, bridges,
dentures, fillings, crowns, and implants. |
retainer:
a removable appliance used to maintain teeth in a given position (usually
worn at night). |
root:
tooth structure that connects the tooth to the jaw. |
root
canal therapy: procedure used to save an
abscessed tooth in which the pulp chamber is cleaned out, disinfected, and
filled with a permanent filling. |
rubber
dam: soft latex or vinyl sheet used to establish
isolation of one or more teeth from contamination by oral fluids and to keep
materials from falling to the back of the throat. |
saliva:
clear lubricating fluid in the mouth containing water, enzymes, bacteria,
mucus, viruses, blood cells and undigested food particles. |
salivary
glands: glands located under tongue and in cheeks
that produce saliva. |
scaling
and root planing: a deep-cleaning, nonsurgical
procedure whereby plaque and tartar from above and below the gum line are
scraped away (scaling) and rough spots on the tooth root are made smooth (planing). |
sealants:
a thin, clear or white resin substance that is applied to the biting surfaces
of teeth to prevent decay. |
sedative:
a type of medication used to reduce pain and anxiety, and create a state of
relaxation. |
soft
palate: the back one-third of the roof of the mouth
composed of soft tissue. |
space
maintainer: dental device that holds the
space lost through premature loss of baby teeth. |
stains:
can be either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic stain is located on the outside
of the tooth surface originating from external substances such as tobacco,
coffee, tea, or food; usually removed by polishing the teeth with an abrasive
prophylaxis paste. Intrinsic stain originates from the ingestion of certain
materials or chemical substances during tooth development, or from the
presence of caries. This stain is permanent and cannot be removed. |
stomatitis:
an inflammation of the tissue underlying a denture. Ill-fitting dentures,
poor dental hygiene, or a buildup of the fungus Candida albicans can cause
the condition. |
supernumerary
tooth: an extra tooth. |
tartar:
common term for dental calculus, a hard deposit that adheres to teeth;
produces rough surface that attracts plaque. |
teething:
baby teeth pushing through the gums. |
temporomandibular
disorder (TMD)/temporomandibular joint (TMJ): the term
given to a problem that concerns the muscles and joint that connect the lower
jaw with the skull. The condition is characterized by facial pain and
restricted ability to open or move the jaw. It is often accompanied by a
clicking or popping sound when the jaw is opened or closed. |
thrush:
an infection in the mouth caused by the fungus Candida. |
tooth
whitening: a chemical or laser process to lighten the
color of teeth. |
topical
anesthetic: ointment that produces mild
anesthesia when applied to a soft tissue surface. |
transcutaneous
electrical nerve stimulation (TENS): a therapy
that uses low-level electrical currents to provide pain relief. In dentistry,
TENS is one type of therapy that can be used to relax the jaw joint and
facial muscles. |
transplant:
placing a natural tooth in the empty socket of another tooth. |
trauma:
injury caused by external force, chemical, temperature extremes, or poor
tooth alignment. |
trigger-point
injections: a method of relieving pain
whereby pain medication or anesthesia is injected into tender muscles called
"trigger points." In dentistry, this can be used in individuals
with temporomandibular disorders. |
ultrasound:
a treatment in which deep heat is applied to an affected area to relieve
soreness or improve mobility. In dentistry, ultrasound can be used to treat
temporomandibular disorders. |
underbite:
when the lower jaw protrudes forward causing the lower jaw and teeth to
extend out beyond the upper teeth. |
unerupted
tooth: a tooth that has not pushed through the gum
and assumed its correct position in the dental arch. |
veneer:
a thin, custom-made shell of tooth-colored plastic or porcelain that is bonded
directly to the front side of natural teeth to improve their appearance --
for example, to replace lost tooth structure, close spaces, straighten teeth,
or change color and/or shape. |
wisdom
teeth: third (last) molars that usually erupt at age
18-25. |
xerostomia:
dry mouth or decrease in the production of saliva. |
X-rays:
high frequency light (or radiation) that penetrates different substances with
different rates and absorption. In dentistry, there are typically four types
of X-rays: periapical, bite-wing, occlusal, and panoramic. |
Literature:
Principle:
1. Ісаєва О.С.,
Кучумова Н.В., Шумило М.Ю. English for dentists: Англійська мова для студентів-стоматологів: Підручник. – Львів: Кварт, 2008. – 421 с.
2.
Аврахова Л.Я., Лавриш Ю.Е. English for dentists: Навчальний посібник для вищих навчальних медичних закладів ІІІ – IV рівнів акредитації. – К.: Видавничий дім «Асканія», 2008. – 366 с.
3. Цебрук
І.Ф., Венгренович А.А., Венгренович Н.Ф. Англійська мова для
студентів-стоматологів: Підручник. – Івано_Франківськ: ДВНЗ «Івано-Франківський націон. медичний університет», 2012.
– 480 с.
4. Матеріали
розміщені на сайті Тернопільського державного медичного університету імені
І.Я.Горбачевського http://intranet.tdmu.edu.ua/data/kafedra/internal/index.php?path=in_mow/classes_stud/
Additional:
1.
Шиленко Р.В., Мухина В.В., Скрипникова Т.П. Англійська
мова. / Практичний курс для студентів стоматологічного факультету/. –
Полтава, 1998. – 560 с.
2. Демченко О.Й., Костяк Н.В. Англійська мова для студентів-медиків : Посібник для підготовки до іспиту. – Тернопіль: Укрмедкнига, 2001.– 80с
3. Граматика сучасної англійської
мови (довідник) [Текст] : довідник / Г. В. Верба, Л. Г.
Верба. - К. : Логос, 2000. - 352
с.
4. Матеріали кафедри.
Prepared by
H.Y.Pavlyshyn
June 10, 2013. Minutes № 11.