Problem and Purpose Statements
Research Problems,
Research Questions, and Hypotheses
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
Studies begin as problems that researchers want
to solve or as questions they want to answer. This chapter discusses the formulation
and development of research problems. We begin by clarifying some relevant
terms.
Basic
Terminology
At the most general level, a researcher selects a
topic or a phenomenon on which to focus. Examples of research topics are
adolescent smoking, patient compliance, coping with disability, and pain
management. Within each of these broad topics are many potential research
problems. In this section, we illustrate various terms using the topic side
effects of chemotherapy.
A research problem is
an enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling condition. Both qualitative and
quantitative researchers identify a research problem within a broad topic area
of interest. The purpose of research is to “solve” the problem—or to contribute
to its solution—by accumulating relevant information. A problem statement articulates
the problem to be addressed and indicates the need for a study. Table 4-1
presents a problem statement related to the topic of side effects of
chemotherapy.
Research questions are
the specific queries researchers want to answer in addressing the research
problem. Research questions guide the types of data to be collected in a study.
Researchers who make specific predictions regarding answers to the research
question pose hypotheses that are tested empirically.
Many reports include a statement of purpose (or
purpose statement), which is the researcher’s summary of the overall goal of a
study. A researcher might also identify several research aims or objectives—the
specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting the
study. The objectives include obtaining answers to
research questions or testing research hypotheses but may also encompass some
broader aims (e.g., developing recommendations for changes to nursing practice
based on the study results).
These terms are not always consistently defined
in research methods textbooks, and differences between the terms are often
subtle. Table 4-1 illustrates the interrelationships among terms as we define
them.
Research forms a cycle. It starts with a problem and
ends with a solution to the problem. The problem statement is therefore the
axis which the whole research revolves around, beacause
it explains in short the aim of the research.
1 WHAT IS
A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem is the situation that
causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the
demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or
WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.
There are many problem situations that may
give rise to research. Three sources usually contribute to problem
identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of
problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may
read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered.
This could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source.
Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or
substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory findings, at
correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use
of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving
existing practical problems.
2
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
The prospective researcher should think on
what caused the need to do the research (problem identification). The
question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to
which answers have not been found up to the present?
Research originates from a need that arises.
A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSE should be made. The
problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think
about, wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, ie find answers to the question(s). If there is no clear
problem formulation, the purpose and methods are meaningless.
Keep the following in mind:
·
Outline the general context of the problem area.
·
Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
·
What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?
·
Why are these issues identified important?
·
What needs to be solved?
·
Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to
identify unanswered questions or controversies, and/or to identify the the most significant issues for further exploration.
The research problem should be stated in such
a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher
with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem.
Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
·
The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct
and as completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording
(expressions) you use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no
doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are.
·
Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main
problem into subproblems is of the utmost importance.
3 SUBPROBLEM(S)
Subproblems are problems related to the main
problem identified. Subproblems flow from the main
problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set
goal in a manageable way and contribute to solving the problem.
4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The statement of the problem involves the
demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie the
WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the
hypothesis.
Research Problems and Paradigms
Some research problems are better suited for
studies using qualitative versus quantitative methods. Quantitative studies
usually involve concepts that are fairly well developed, about which there is
an existing body of literature, and for which reliable methods of measurement
have been developed. For example, a quantitative study might be undertaken to
determine if postpartum depression is higher among women who are employed 6
months after delivery than among those who stay home with their babies. There
are relatively accurate measures of postpartum depression that would yield
quantitative information about the level of depression in a sample of employed
and nonemployed postpartum women.
Qualitative studies are often undertaken because
some aspect of a phenomenon is poorly understood, and the researcher wants to
develop a rich, comprehensive, and context-bound understanding of it.
Qualitative studies are usually initiated to heighten awareness and create a
dialogue about a phenomenon. In the example of postpartum depression,
qualitative methods would not be well suited to comparing levels of depression
among the two groups of women, but they would be ideal for exploring, for
example, the meaning of postpartum depression among new mothers. Thus,
the nature of the research question is closely allied to paradigms and research
traditions within paradigms.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
Students are sometimes puzzled about the origins
of research problems. Where do ideas for research problems come from? How do
researchers select topic areas and develop research questions? At the most
basic level, research topics originate with researchers’ interests. Because
research is a time consuming enterprise, curiosity about and interest in a
topic are essential to a project’s success. Explicit sources that might fuel
researchers’ curiosity include experience, the nursing literature, social
issues, theories, and ideas from others.
Experience and Clinical Fieldwork
The nurse’s everyday clinical experience is a
rich source of ideas for research problems. As you are performing your nursing
functions, you are bound to find a wealth of research ideas if you are curious
about why things are the way they are or about how things could be improved if
something were to change. You may be well along the way to developing a
research idea if you have ever asked the following kinds of questions: Why are
things done this way? What information would help to solve this problem? What
is the process by which this situation arose? What would happen if? For
beginning researchers in particular, clinical experience (or clinical
coursework) is often the most compelling source for topics. Immediate problems
that need a solution or that excite the curiosity are relevant and interesting
and, thus, may generate more enthusiasm than abstract and distant problems
inferred from a theory. Clinical fieldwork before a study may also help to
identify clinical problems.
TIP: Personal experiences in clinical settings
are a provocative source of research ideas. Here are some hints on how to
proceed:
• Watch for recurring problems and see if you can
discern a pattern in situations that lead to the problem. Example: Why do many
patients complain of being tired after being transferred from a coronary care
unit to a progressive care unit?
• Think about aspects of your work that are
irksome, frustrating, or do not result in the intended outcome — then try to
identify factors contributing to the problem that could be changed. Example:
Why is suppertime so frustrating in a nursing home?
• Critically examine some decisions you make in
performing your functions. Are these decisions based on tradition, or are they
based on systematic evidence that supports their efficacy? Many practices in
nursing that have become custom might be challenged. Example: What would happen
if visiting hours in the intensive care unit were changed from 10 minutes every
hour to the regularly scheduled hours existing in the rest of the hospital?
Nursing
Literature
Ideas for research projects often come from
reading the nursing literature. Beginning nurse researchers can profit from
regularly reading nursing journals, either clinical specialty journals or
research journals such as Nursing Research or the Western Journal of
Nursing Research. Nonresearch articles can be
helpful in alerting researchers to clinical trends and issues of importance in
clinical settings. Published research reports may suggest problem areas
indirectly by stimulating the imagination and directly by specifying further
areas in need of investigation.
Example of a direct suggestion for
further research:
Stranahan
(2001) studied the relationship between nurse practitioners’ attitudes about
spiritual care and their spiritual care practices. She made several
recommendations for further research in her report, such as the following:
“Studies should be conducted to determine reasons why nurse practitioners do
not practice spiritual care in the primary care setting” (p. 87).
Inconsistencies in the findings reported in
nursing literature sometimes generate ideas for studies. For example, there are
inconsistencies regarding which type of tactile stimulation or touch (e.g.,
gentle touch, stroking, rubbing) has the most beneficial physiologic and
behavioral effects on preterm infants. Such discrepancies can lead to the
design of a study to resolve the matter.
Researchers may also wonder whether a study
similar to one reported in a journal article would yield comparable results if
applied in a different setting or with a different population. Replications are
needed to establish the validity and generalizability of previous findings.
In summary, a familiarity with existing research, or with problematic and controversial nursing
issues that have yet to be understood and investigated systematically, is an
important route to developing a research topic. Students who are actively
seeking a problem to study will find it useful to read widely in areas of
interest. In Chapter 5, we deal more extensively with the conduct of research
literature reviews.
TIP: In a pinch, do not hesitate to replicate a
study that is reported in the research literature. Replications are a valuable
learning experience and can make important contributions if they corroborate (or
even if they challenge) earlier findings.
Social Issues
Sometimes, topics are suggested by more global
contemporary social or political issues of relevance to the health care
community. For example, the feminist movement has raised questions about such
topics as sexual harassment, domestic violence, and gender equity in health
care and in research. The civil rights movement has led to research on minority
health problems, access to health care, and culturally
sensitive interventions. Thus, an idea for a study may stem from a familiarity
with social concerns or controversial social problems.
Theory
The fourth major source of research problems lies
in the theories and conceptual schemes that have been
developed in nursing and related disciplines. To be useful in nursing practice,
theories must be tested through research for their applicability to hospital
units, clinics, classrooms, and other nursing environments.
When researchers decide to base a
study on an existing theory, deductions from the theory must be developed.
Essentially, researchers must ask the following questions: If this theory is
correct, what kind of behavior would I expect to find in certain situations or
under certain conditions? What kind of evidence would support this theory? This
process, which is described more fully in Chapter 6, would eventually result in
a specific problem that could be subjected to systematic investigation.
Ideas From External Sources
External sources can sometimes
provide the impetus for a research idea. In some cases, a research topic may be
given as a direct suggestion. For example, a faculty member may give students a
list of topics from which to choose or may actually assign a specific topic to
be studied. Organizations that sponsor funded research, such as government
agencies, often identify topics on which research proposals are encouraged.
Ideas for research are also being noted on various websites on the internet
(see, for example, Duffy, 2001).
Research ideas sometimes represent a
response to priorities that are established within the nursing profession,
examples of which were discussed in Chapter 1. Priorities for nursing research
have been established by many nursing specialty practices. Priority lists can
often serve as a useful starting point for exploring research topics.
Often, ideas for studies emerge as a
result of a brainstorming session. By discussing possible research topics with
peers, advisers or mentors, or researchers with advanced skills, ideas often
become clarified and sharpened or enriched and more fully developed.
Professional conferences often provide an excellent opportunity for such
discussions.
DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT
OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Unless a research problem is developed on the
basis of theory or an explicit suggestion from an external source, the actual
procedures for developing a research topic are difficult to describe. The
process is rarely a smooth and orderly one; there are likely to be false
starts, inspirations, and setbacks in the process of developing a research
problem statement. The few suggestions offered here are not intended to imply
that there are techniques for making this first step easy but rather to
encourage beginning researchers to persevere in the absence of instant success.
Selecting
a Topic
The development of a research problem is a
creative process that depends on imagination and ingenuity. In the early
stages, when research ideas are being generated, it is wise not to be critical
of them immediately. It is better to begin by relaxing and jotting down general
areas of interest as they come to mind. At this point, it matters little if the
terms used to remind you of your ideas are abstract or concrete, broad or
specific, technical, or colloquial—the important point is to put some ideas on
paper. Examples of some broad topics that may come to mind include
nurse—patient communication, pain in patients with cancer, and postoperative
loss of orientation.
After this first step, the ideas can be sorted in
terms of interest, knowledge about the topics, and the perceived feasibility of
turning the topics into a research project. When the most fruitful idea has
been selected, the rest of the list should not be discarded; it may be
necessary to return to it.
Beginning researchers often develop problems that
are too broad in scope or too complex and unwieldy for their level of methodologic expertise. The transformation of the general
topic into a workable problem is typically accomplished in a number of uneven
steps, involving a series of successive approximations. Each step should result
in progress toward the goals of narrowing the scope of the problem and
sharpening and defining the concepts.
As researchers move from general topics to more
specific researchable problems, more than one potential problem area can
emerge. Let us consider the following example. Suppose you were working on a
medical unit and were puzzled by that fact that some patients always complained
about having to wait for pain medication when certain nurses were assigned to
them and, yet, these same patients offered no complaints with other nurses. The
general problem area is discrepancy in complaints from patients regarding pain
medications administered by different nurses. You might ask the following: What
accounts for this discrepancy? How can I improve the situation? Such questions
are not actual research questions; they are too broad and vague. They may,
however, lead you to ask other questions, such as the following: How do the two
groups of nurses differ? What characteristics are unique to each group of
nurses? What characteristics do the group of complaining patients share? At
this point, you may observe that the ethnic background of the patients and
nurses appears to be a relevant factor. This may direct you to a review of the literature
for studies concerning ethnicity in relation to nursing care, or it may provoke
you to discuss the observations with others. The result of these efforts may be
several researchable questions, such as the following:
• What is the essence of patient complaints among
patients of different ethnic backgrounds?
• What is the patient’s experience of waiting for
pain medication?
• How do complaints by patients of different
ethnic backgrounds get expressed by patients and perceived by nurses?
• Is the ethnic background of nurses related to
the frequency with which they dispense pain medication?
• Is the ethnic background of patients related to
the frequency and intensity of complaints when waiting for pain medication?
• Does the number of patient complaints increase
when patients are of dissimilar ethnic backgrounds as opposed to when they are
of the same ethnic background as nurses?
• Do nurses’ dispensing behaviors change as a
function of the similarity between their own ethnic background and that of
patients?
All these questions stem from the same general
problem, yet each would be studied differently — for example, some suggest a
qualitative approach and others suggest a quantitative one. A quantitative
researcher might become curious about nurses’ dispensing behaviors, based on
some interesting evidence in the literature regarding ethnic differences. Both
ethnicity and nurses’ dispensing behaviors are variables that can be measured
in a straightforward and reliable manner. A qualitative researcher who noticed
differences in patient complaints would likely be more interested in
understanding the essence of the complaints, the patients’ experience
of frustration, the process by which the problem got resolved, or
the full nature of the nurse—patient interactions regarding the
dispensing of medications. These are aspects of the research problem that would
be difficult to quantify.
Researchers choose the final problem to be
studied based on several factors, including its inherent interest to them and
its compatibility with a paradigm of preference. In addition, tentative
problems usually vary in their feasibility and worth. It is at this point that
a critical evaluation of ideas is appropriate.
Evaluating
Research Problems
There are no rules for making a final selection
of a research problem. Some criteria, however, should be kept in mind in the
decision-making process. The four most important considerations are the
significance, researchability, and feasibility of the
problem, and its interest to the researcher.
Significance of the Problem
A crucial factor in selecting a problem to be
studied is its significance to nursing — especially to nursing practice.
Evidence from the study should have the potential of contributing meaningfully
to nursing knowledge. Researchers should pose the following kinds of questions:
Is the problem an important one? Will patients, nurses, or the broader health
care community or society benefit from the evidence that will be produced? Will
the results lead to practical applications? Will the results have theoretical
relevance? Will the findings challenge (or lend support to) untested
assumptions? Will the study help to formulate or alter nursing practices or
policies? If the answer to all these questions is “no,” then the problem should
be abandoned.
Researchability
of the Problem
Not all problems are amenable to study through
scientific investigation. Problems or questions of a moral or ethical nature,
although provocative, are incapable of being researched. Take, for example, the
following: Should assisted suicide be legalized? The answer to such a question
is based on a person’s values. There are no rights or wrong answers,
only points of view. The problem is suitable to debate, not to research. To be
sure, it is possible to ask related questions that could be researched. For
instance, each of the following questions could be investigated in a research
project:
• What are nurses’ attitudes toward assisted
suicide?
• Do oncology nurses hold more favorable opinions
of assisted suicide than other nurses?
• What moral dilemmas are perceived by nurses who
might be involved in assisted suicide?
• What are the attitudes of terminally ill
patients toward assisted suicide?
• Do terminally ill patients living with a high
level of pain hold more favorable attitudes toward assisted suicide than those
with less pain?
• How do family members experience the loss of a
loved one through assisted suicide?
The findings from these hypothetical projects
would have no bearing, of course, on whether assisted suicide should be
legalized, but the information could be useful in developing a better
understanding of the issues.
In quantitative studies, researchable problems
are ones involving variables that can be precisely defined and measured. For
example, suppose a researcher is trying to determine what effect early
discharge has on patient well-being. Well-being is too vague a concept
for a study. The researcher would have to sharpen and define the concept so
that it could be observed and measured. That is, the researcher would have to
establish criteria against which patients’ progress toward well-being could be
assessed.
When a new area of inquiry is being pursued,
however, it may be impossible to define the concepts of interest in precise
terms. In such cases, it may be appropriate to address the problem using
in-depth qualitative research. The problem may then be stated in fairly broad
terms to permit full exploration of the concept of interest.
Feasibility of Addressing the Problem
A problem that is both significant and
researchable may still be inappropriate if a study designed to address it is
not feasible. The issue of feasibility encompasses various considerations. Not
all of the following factors are relevant for every problem, but they should be
kept in mind in making a final decision.
Time and Timing.
Most studies have deadlines or at least goals for
completion. Therefore, the problem must be one that can be adequately studied
within the time allotted. This means that the scope of the problem should be
sufficiently restricted that enough time will be available for the various
steps and activities reviewed in Chapter 3. It is wise to be conservative in
estimating time for various tasks because research activities often require
more time to accomplish than anticipated. Qualitative studies may be especially
time-consuming.
A related consideration is the timing of the
project. Some of the research steps — especially data collection — may be more
readily performed at certain times of the day, week, or year than at other
times. For example, if the problem focused on patients with peptic ulcers, the
research might be more easily conducted in the fall and spring because of the
increase in the number of patients with peptic ulcers during these seasons.
When the timing requirements of the tasks do not match the time available for
their performance, the feasibility of the project may be jeopardized.
Availability of Study Participants.
In any study involving humans, researchers need
to consider whether individuals with the desired characteristics will be
available and willing to cooperate. Securing people’s cooperation may in some
cases be easy (e.g., getting nursing students to complete a questionnaire in a
classroom), but other situations may pose more difficulties. Some people may
not have the time, others may have no interest in a study that has little
personal benefit, and others may not feel well enough to participate.
Fortunately, people usually are willing to cooperate if research demands
are minimal. Researchers may need to exert extra effort in recruiting
participants—or may have to offer a monetary incentive—if the research is
time-consuming or demanding.
An additional problem may be that of identifying
and locating people with needed characteristics. For example, if we were
interested in studying the coping strategies of people who had lost a family
member through suicide, we would have to develop a plan for identifying prospective
participants from this distinct and inconspicuous population.
Cooperation
of Others. Often, it is
insufficient to obtain the cooperation of prospective study participants alone.
If the sample includes children, mentally incompetent people, or senile individuals,
it would be necessary to secure the permission of parents or guardians, an
issue discussed in the chapter on ethics (see Chapter 7). In institutional or
organizational settings (e.g., hospitals), access to clients, members,
personnel, or records usually requires administrative authorization. Many
health care facilities require that any project be presented to a panel of
reviewers for approval. As noted in Chapter
Facilities
and Equipment. All studies
have resource requirements, although in some cases, needs may be modest. It is
prudent to consider what facilities and equipment will be needed and whether
they will be available before embarking on a project to avoid disappointment
and frustration. The following is a partial list of considerations:
• Will assistants be needed, and are such
assistants available?
• If technical equipment and apparatus are
needed, can they be secured, and are they functioning properly? Will
audiotaping or videotaping equipment be required, and is it of sufficient
sensitivity for the research conditions? Will laboratory facilities be
required, and are they available?
• Will space be required, and can it be obtained?
• Will telephones, office equipment, or other
supplies be required?
• Are duplicating or printing services available,
and are they reliable?
• Will transportation needs
pose any difficulties?
Money. Monetary
requirements for research projects vary widely, ranging from $10 to $20 for
small student projects to hundreds of thousands (or even millions) of dollars
for large-scale, government-sponsored research. The investigator on a limited
budget should think carefully about projected expenses before making the final
selection of a problem. Some major categories of research-related expenditures
are the following:
• Literature costs — computerized literature
search and retrieval service charges, Internet access charges, reproduction
costs, index cards, books and journals
• Personnel costs — payments to individuals hired
to help with the data collection (e.g., for conducting interviews, coding, data
entry, transcribing, word processing)
• Study participant costs — payment to
participants as an incentive for their cooperation or to offset their own
expenses (e.g., transportation or baby-sitting costs)
• Supplies — paper, envelopes, computer disks,
postage, audiotapes, and so forth
• Printing and duplication costs — expenditures
for printing forms, questionnaires, participant recruitment notices, and so on
• Equipment—laboratory apparatus, audio- or
video-recorders, calculators, and the like
• Computer-related expenses (e.g., purchasing
software)
• Laboratory fees for the analysis of biophysiologic data
• Transportation costs