№ 13 Subject: At the Chemist’s Shop.Grammar Review

 

Chemist’s shops are specialized shops where medicines are sold. At the chemist’s there are two departments: a prescription department and a chemist’s department. At the prescription department medicines are sold or made up according to prescriptions. At the chemist’s department one can buy medicines without prescriptions.

At the chemist’s all medicines are kept in drug cabinets, on the open shelves and in the refrigerator. Every small bottle, a tube or a box has a label with the name of the medicine. There are labels of four colours: green labels indicate medicines for internal use; blue labels indicate drugs for injections, labels of a yellow colour indicate drugs for external application and labels of a pink colour indicate drugs for the treatment of eye diseases. The single dose and the total dosage are indicated on the label.

At the chemist’s one can buy different drugs for intramuscular and intravenous injections, tubes of ointments, different pills and tablets for internal use, tonics and sedatives; drugs for cough and headache; cardiac medicines; herbs and things for medical care (hot-water bottles, medicine droppers, cups, thermometers) and many other things.

One must be careful using medicine.

 

 

 

 

В аптеці

deodorant	дезодорант
aftershave	засіб після гоління
comb	гребінець
hairbrush	щітка для волосся
soap	мило
shower gel	гель для душу
shampoo	шампунь
conditioner	кондиціонер
razor	бритва
razorblade	лезо
shaving foam	піна для гоління
shaving gel	гель для гоління
shaving cream	крем для гоління
shaving brush	щітка для гоління
perfume	парфум
make-up	косметика
lipstick	помада
eyeshadow	тіні для повік
eyeliner	підводка для очей
mascara	туш для вій
foundation	тональна основа
moisturising cream	зволожуючий крем
hand cream	крем для рук
face powder	пудра
hair gel	гель для волосся
hair wax	віск для волосся
hair spray	спрей для волосся
hair colouring або hair dye	фарба для волосся
lip salve	бальзам для губ
cotton wool	вата
nail file	пилка для нігтів
nail scissors	ножиці для нігтів
tweezers	пінцет
sanitary towels	гігієнічні серветки
tampons	тампони
panty liners	щоденні прокладки
aspirin	аспірин
paracetamol	парацетамол
plasters	пластири
indigestion tablets	таблетки від розладу шлунку
toothpaste	зубна паста
toothbrush	зубна щітка

 

vitamin pills	вітаміни
throat lozenges	пастилки для горла
cough mixture	мікстура від кашлю
disposable nappies	одноразові пелюшки
baby wipes	дитячі вологі серветки
tissues	бумажні носовички
safety pins	шпильки
painkillers	знеболюючі
bandages	бинти
baby foods	дитяче харчування
nicotine patches	никотинові пластири
condoms	презервативи
emergency contraception (the morning after pill)	екстрена контрацепція (таблетка наступного ранку)
prescription	рецепт
chemist	аптекар
pharmacist	фармацевт
medicine	ліки
pregnancy testing kit	тест на вагітність
lip gloss	блиск для губ
lip balm	бальзам для губ
sun cream	сонцезахисний крем
nail varnish	лак для нігтів
nail varnish remover	засіб для видалення лаку з нігтів
sun block	засіб, що перешкоджає засмазі
thermometer	термометр
laxatives	проносне
diarrhoea tablets	таблетки від поносу
hay fever tablets	таблетки від сінної лихоманки
contact lens solution	рідина для контактних лінз
eye drops	краплі для очей
athlete’s foot powder	пудра від грибкової інфекції
hot water bottle	грілка
travel sickness tablets	таблетки від захитування
sleeping tablets	снодійні

 

 

 

On receiving a prescription from a doctor we need medicines which are usially ordered or bought at the a chemist’s.
There are two departments in a large chemist’s: the chemist’s department and the prescrition department. At the chemist’s department one can have the medicine immediately, other drugs have to be ordered at the prescription department.
At the chemist’s all drugs are kept in drug cabinets. Every small bottle, a tube or a box of medicine has a label on it. There are labels of three colors. White labels indicate drugs for internal use yellow ones indicate drugs for external use and blue ones indicate drugs injections. The dose to be taken and directions for administration are also indicated on a label. Indicating the dose and the name of any medicine is necessary for chemist, nurses, doctors and patients themselves. It prevents confusing different remedies because some of them are poisonous. Their overdosage may couse unfavorable reactions.
At a chemist’s one can by different drugs for intramuscular and intravenous injections, for oral administration and for external use. One can also buy tubes of ointments, sedatives, tonics, sleeping, draughts, laxatives, medicine droppers, mustard plasters, hot-water bottles and many other things.
One must be careful using medicine.

Chemist’s shops are specialized shops where medicines are sold. At the chemist’s there are two departments: a prescription department and a chemist’s department. At the prescription department medicines are sold or made up according to prescriptions. At the chemist’s department one can buy medicines without prescriptions.

At the chemist’s all medicines are kept in drug cabinets, on the open shelves and in the refrigerator. Every small bottle, a tube or a box has a label with the name of the medicine. There are labels of four colours: green labels indicate medicines for internal use; blue labels indicate drugs for injections, labels of a yellow colour indicate drugs for external application and labels of a pink colour indicate drugs for the treatment of eye diseases. The single dose and the total dosage are indicated on the label.

At the chemist’s one can buy different drugs for intramuscular and intravenous injections, tubes of ointments, different pills and tablets for internal use, tonics and sedatives; drugs for cough and headache; cardiac medicines; herbs and things for medical care (hot-water bottles, medicine droppers, cups, thermometers) and many other things.

One must be careful using medicine.

 

At Chemist‘s

 

 

 

 

A chemist is a scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties such as density, acidity, size and shape. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, reaction rates, and other chemical properties.

 

Chemists use this knowledge to learn the composition, and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. Chemical engineers are concerned with the physical processes necessary to carry out industrial reactions (heating, cooling, mixing, diffusion etc) and to separate and purify the products, and work with industrial chemists on the development of new processes.

 

 

History

 

 

The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glass. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called Alchemy. The word chemist is derived from the New Latioun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista (alchemist). Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of Conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleyev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century.

Education

 

Jobs for chemists usually require at least a bachelor’s degree, but many positions, especially those in research, require a Ph.D. Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as “the central science”, thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master’s level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry and physical chemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions.

Employment

 

The three major employers of chemists are academic institutions, industry, especially the chemical industry and the pharmaceutical industry, and government laboratories.

 

Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, and several engineering disciplines.

Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.

Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry.

 

A chemist prepares a new fuel cell for testing.

Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding.

Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their quantitative structure-activity relationships.

Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and chemical reaction of organic compounds.

Physical chemistry is the study of the physical fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has large overlap with theoretical chemistry and molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations.

Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with condensed matter physics and molecular physics.See Reductionism.

 

All the above major areas of chemistry employ chemists. Other fields where chemical degrees are useful include Astrochemistry, Atmospheric chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Chemo-informatics, Electrochemistry, Environmental science, Forensic science, Geochemistry, Green chemistry, History of chemistry, Materials science, Medical science, Molecular Biology, Molecular genetics, Nanotechnology, Nuclear chemistry, Oenology, Organometallic chemistry, Petrochemistry, Pharmacology, Photochemistry, Phytochemistry, Polymer chemistry, Supramolecular chemistry and Surface chemistry.

 

It has been suggested that chemists going into employment in scientific research should honour a Hippocratic Oath for Scientists which is required as a Professional Chemist.

 

AT A CHEMIST’S

 

   Drugs are very useful, but they can be equally dangerous. The doctor knows the action of drugs in the body, the ranges of dosage, the adverse reactions and contraindications. Physician is the only person responsible for prescribing the medication and the dosage. Both prescription and nonprescription drugs can be obtained from pharmacies or drugstores. Pharmacy is a place where drugs are compounded or dispensed. Pharmacist is the person licensed to make up the prescriptions; the chemist or druggist sells drugs and drug preparations. If a pharmacist is the proprietor of a drugstore, he is also a druggist.

   Drugs are prepared in forms suitable for the various methods of administration. These forms are liquids, semisolids and solids. Solid dosage forms includetablets , capsules, caplets, suppositories. Creams, pastes and ointments belong to semisolids and are normally rubbed onto the skin. Solutions, syrups, elixirs, tinctures and suspensions belong to liquid forms. The form of a drug, its specific chemical and physical properties, pathologic condition of the patient, adequacy of medication compliance and the effect desired determine the method of administration. Some drugs are most effective when taken internally, others are absorbed more rapidly if they are injected into the veins or the tissues, still others bring the best results when applied to the skin. The most common methods of administration are: oral – by mouth; nasal – by nasal cavity; inhalation – through respiration; suppository – by internal rectal or vaginal absorption injection – subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous; transdermal — applied to skin.

Before administering the medications, expiration date on all medication labels and orders should be checked. The accuracy in drug calculation should be insured too. It is important to prevent adverse drug reactions which may be caused by either excessive dosage, side effects, intolerance, or drug interactions. Alternative drugs should be prescribed for patients who have allergies to the commonly recommended drugs.

Dose is the amount of the drug to be given at one time. Dosage refers to the regulation of frequency, size, and number of doses. Combinations of drugs are sometimes given because together they produce desirable therapeutic effects that would not be possible if one of them were given alone.

When the doctor prescribes a medication, he writes and signs this order. In the hospital he uses the order book on the head nurse’s desk or the order sheet on the patient’s chart. Except routine or standard orders following types of medication orders are used: single order – “to be given only once”, p.r.n. order – given on a “wheecessary basis”, stat. order – “to be given only once and immediately”.

GRAMMAR NOTES

 

Present Simple and Present Continuous

We use the present simple to describe things that are always true, or situations that exist now and,

as far as we know, will go on indefinitely:

• It takes me five minutes to get to school.

• Trees grow more quickly in summer than in winter. • Liz plays the violin brilliantly.

To talk about particular actions or events that have begun but have not ended at the time of

speaking, we use the present continuous:

• The car isn’t starting again.

• ‘Who are you phoning?’ ‘I’m trying to get through to Joan.’

• The shop is so inefficient that many customers are taking their business elsewhere.

We often use time expressions such as at the moment, at present, currently, just, and still to

emphasise that the action or event is happening now:

• ‘Have you done the shopping?’ Tm just going.’

Notice that the action or event may not be going on at the time of speaking:

• The police are talking to a number of people about the robbery.

We use the present simple to talk about habits or things that happen on a regular basis:

• I leave work at 5.30 most days.

• Each July we go to Turkey for a holiday.

However, when we describe repeated actions or events that are happening at or around the time

of speaking, we use the present continuous:

• Why are you jumping up and down?

• I’m hearing a lot of good reports about your work these days.

We can use the present continuous or the present simple to describe something that we regularly

do at a particular time. Compare:

• We usually watch the news on TV at 9.00. (= we start watching at 9.00)

• We’re usually watching the news on TV at 9.00. (= we’re already watching at 9.00)

We use the present continuous to imply that a situation is or may be temporary. Compare:

• Banks lend money to make a profit, (this is what usually happens)

• Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand, (implies a

temporary arrangement)

• She teaches Maths in a school in Bonn, (a permanent arrangement)

• She’s teaching Maths in a school in Bonn, (implies that this is not, or may not be, permanent)

We often use the present simple with verbs that perform the action they describe:

• I admit I can’t see as well as I used to. (= an admission)

• I refuse to believe that he didn’t know the car was stolen. (= a refusal)

Other verbs like this (sometimes called performative verbs) include accept, acknowledge, advise,

apologise, assume, deny, guarantee, hope, inform, predict, promise, recommend, suggest,

suppose, warn.

We can use modals with performative verbs to make what we say more tentative or polite:.

• I would advise you to arrive two hours before the flight leaves.

• I’m afraid I have to inform you that your application for funding has been turned down.

 

We often prefer to use the present simple rather than the present continuous with verbs describing

states:

• I really enjoy travelling.

• The group currently consists of five people, but we hope to get more members soon.

Other common state verbs include agree, assume, believe, belong to, contain, cost, disagree, feel,

hate, have, hope, know, like, look, love, own, prefer, realise, regret, resemble, smell, taste.

However, we can use the present continuous with some state verbs when we want to emphasise

that a situation is temporary, for a period of time around the present. Compare:

• I consider him to be extremely fortunate. (This is my view) and

• I’m considering taking early retirement. (This is something I’m thinking about now)

• The children love having Jean stay with us. (They love it when Jean stays) and

• The children are loving having Jean stay with us. (Jean is staying with us now)

With some verbs used to describe a temporary state (e.g. ache, feel, hurt, look (= seem)), there is

little difference in meaning when we use the present simple and present continuous:

• What’s the matter with Bill? He looks / is looking awful.

When have has a non-state meaning – for example when it means ‘eat’, ‘undergo’, ‘take’ or

‘hold’ – we can use the present continuous:

• ‘What’s that terrible noise?’ ‘The neighbours are having a party.’

We use the present continuous when we talk about changes, developments, and trends:

• The growing number of visitors is damaging the footpaths.

• I’m beginning to realise how difficult it is to be a teacher.

When we tell a story or joke we often describe the main events using the present (or past) simple

and longer, background events using the present (or past) continuous:

• She goes (or went) up to this man and looks (or looked) straight into his eyes. She’s carrying

(or was carrying) a bag full of shopping…

We can also use the present simple and present continuous like this in

commentaries (for example, on sports events) and in giving instructions:

• King serves to the left hand court and Adams makes a wonderful

return. She’s playing magnificent tennis in this match…

• You hold the can in one hand. Right, you’re holding it in one hand;

now you take off the lid with the other.

When we want to emphasise that something is done repeatedly, we can use the present continuous

with words like always, constantly, continually, or forever. Often we do this when we want to

show that we are unhappy about it, including our own behaviour:

• They’re constantly having parties until the early hours of the morning.

We use the past continuous (see Unit 6) in the same way:

• He was forever including me in his crazy schemes.

The present simple is used to report what we have heard or what we have read:

• This newspaper article explains why unemployment has been rising so quickly.

We also use the present simple in spoken English in phrases such as I gather, I hear, I see, and I

understand to introduce news that we have heard, read or seen (e.g. on television):

• I gather you’re worried about the new job?

• The Prince is coming to visit, and I hear he’s very rich.

 

Present Perfect and Past Simple

Present  Perfect

When we talk about something that happened in the past, but we don’t specify precisely when it

happened (perhaps we don’t know, or it is not important to say when it happened), we use the

present perfect :

• A French yachtsman has broken the record for sailing round the world single-handed.

• I have complained about the traffic before.

When we use the present perfect, it suggests some kind of connection between what happened in

the past, and the present time. Often we are interested in the way that something that happened in

the past affects the situation that exists now:

• I’ve washed my hands so that I can help you with the cooking.

• We can’t go ahead with the meeting, because very few people have shown any interest.

The connection with the present may also be that something happened recently, with a

consequence for the present:

• I’ve found the letter you were looking for. Here it is.

• My ceiling has fallen in and the kitchen is flooded. Come quickly!

When we talk about how long an existing situation has lasted, even if we don’t give a precise

length of time, we use the present perfect:

• They’ve grown such a lot since we last saw them.

• Prices have fallen sharply over the past six months.

• We’ve recently started to walk to work instead of taking the bus.

We often use the present perfect to say that an action or event has been repeated a number of

times up to now:

• They’ve been to Chile three times. • I’ve often wished I’d learned to read music.

Past simple

When we want to indicate that something happened at a specific time in the past, we use the past

simple. We can either say when it happened, using a time adverb, or assume that the hearer

already knows when it happened or can understand this from the context:

• She arrived at Kennedy Airport at 2 o’clock this morning.

• Jane left just a few minutes ago.

• Jim decided to continue the course, even though it was proving very difficult.

We use the past simple for situations that existed for a period of time in the past, but not now:

• When I was younger I played badminton for my local team.

• The Pharaohs ruled Egypt for thousands of years.

If we are interested in when a present situation began rather than how long it has been going on

for, we use the past simple. Compare:

• I started to get the pains three weeks ago. • I’ve had the pains for three weeks now.

a • When did you arrive in Britain? • How long have you been in Britain?

•However, we also use the past simple to talk about how long something went on for if the action

or event is no longer going on

• I stayed with my grandparents for six months. (= I am no longer staying there)

• ‘He spent some time in Paris when he was younger.’ ‘How long did he live there?’

We use the present perfect when we talk about something that happened in a period of time up to

the present. We use the past simple to talk about something that happened at a particular, finished

time in the past. Compare:

• Science has made many major advances this century, and

• Scientists made some fundamental discoveries in the 18th century.

• He puts to good use things that other people have thrown away, and

• I threw away most of my old books when I moved house.

When we report that someone has recently invented, produced, discovered or written something

we use the present perfect. When we talk about something that was invented, etc. in the more

distant past we use the past simple. Compare:

• Scientist have discovered that, all over the world, millions of frogs and toads are dying.

• It is often said that Hernan Cortes ‘discovered’ Mexico in 1519.

• Two schoolchildren have invented a device for moving large objects up flights of stairs.

• Chinese craftsmen invented both paper and printing.

Sometimes it makes very little difference to the main sense of the sentence if we think of something

happening in a period of time up to the present or at a particular, finished time in the past:

• The research is now complete and the experiment was {or has been) a success.

• Does it concern you that you failed {or have failed) the test?

• I’m sure I read {or I have read) somewhere that he died in a plane crash.

We can use either the present perfect or the past simple to talk about repeated actions or events. If

we use the present perfect, we often suggest that the action or event might happen again.

Sometimes we emphasise this with phrases such as so far and up to now. If we use the

past simple, it suggests that it is finished and won’t happen again. Compare:

• Timson has made 13 films and I think her latest is the best, and

• Timson made 13 films before she was tragically killed in a car accident.

• Lee has represented his country on many occasions, and hopes to go on to compete in the

next Olympics, and

• Lee represented his country on many occasions, but was forced to retire after an injury.

We can use both the present perfect and the past simple to talk about states. We use the present

perfect to talk about a state that existed in the past and still exists now, and we use the past simple

if the state no longer exists. Compare:

• I have known him most of my working life. (I am still working) and

• I knew him when we were both working in Rome.

• We have belonged to the tennis club since we moved here. (We still belong to it.) and

• We belonged to the tennis club in the village we used to live in.

 

Some time adverbs that connect the past to the present are often used with the present perfect:

• Don’t disturb Amy. She’s just gone to sleep, (not …she just went to sleep.)

• Have you seen Robert lately} (not Did you see…)

Other time adverbs like this include already, since (last week), so far, still, up to now, yet.

When we use time adverbs that talk about finished periods of time we use the past simple rather

than the present perfect:

• Marie died, at the age of 86, in 1964. (not Marie has died…)

Other time adverbs like this include (a month) ago, at (3 o’clock), last (week, month), on

(Monday), once (= at some time in the past), then, yesterday.

We often use before, for, and recently with the present perfect and also the past simple.

For example:

…with present perfect

• Nothing like this has happened before.

• We’ve had the dishwasher for three years.

(= we have still got it)

• A new school has recently opened in New Road.

…with past simple

• Why didn’t you ask me before}

• We had the car for six years.

(= we no longer have it)

• I saw Dave recently.

Time adverbs that refer to the present, such as today, this morning/week/month, can also be used

with either the present perfect or past simple. If we see today etc. as a past, completed period of

time, then we use the past simple; if we see today, etc. as a period including the present moment,

then we use the present perfect. Compare:

• I didn’t shave today (= the usual time has passed; suggests I will not shave today) and

• I haven’t shaved today. (= today is not finished; I may shave later or may not)

• I wrote three letters this morning. (= the morning is over) and

• I’ve written three letters this morning. (= it is still morning)

We use since to talk about a period that started at some point in the past and continues until the

present time. This is why we often use since with the present perfect:

• Since 1990 I have lived in a small house near the coast.

• Tom has been ill since Christmas.

In a sentence which includes a smce-clause, the usual pattern is for the smce-clause to contain a

past simple, and the main clause to contain a present perfect:

• Since Mr. Hassan became president, both taxes and unemployment have increased.

• I haven’t been able to play tennis since I broke my arm.

However, we can use a present perfect in the since-clause if the two situations described in the

main and since-clause extend until the present:

• Since I’ve lived here, I haven’t seen my neighbours.

We use the present perfect with ever and never to emphasse that we are talking about the whole

of a period of time up until the present:

• It’s one of the most magnificent views I have ever seen. (= in my whole life)

• I’ve never had any problems with my car. (= at any time since I bought it)

We use the past simple with ever and never to talk about a completed period in the past:

• When he was young, he never bothered too much about his appearance.

 

 

Past Continuous and Past Simple

 

To talk about a temporary situation that existed at or around a particular time in the past, we use

the past continuous:

• At the time of the robbery, they were staying with my parents.

• My head was aching again, so I went home.

Compare the use of the past continuous and the past simple in these sentences:

• She was shaking with anger as she left the hotel.

• When he realised I was looking at him, he turned away.

• Erika dropped her bag while she was getting into her car.

We often use the past simple to talk about a completed past event and the past continuous to

describe the situation that existed at the time. The completed event might have interrupted the

situation, or just occurred while the situation or event was in progress.

We don’t normally use the past continuous with certain verbs describing states ;

• This house belonged to the King of Sweden, (not …was belonging to…)

When we talk about two past actions or events that went on over

the same period of time, we can often use the past continuous for both:

• Sally was reading to the children while Kevin was washing up.

• Mario was working in a restaurant when I was living in London.

However, we can often use the past simple to express a similar meaning:

• Mario worked in a restaurant while he lived in London, (or …was living in London.)

When we talk about two or more past completed events that follow each other, we use the past

simple for both. The first may have caused the second:

• She got up when the alarm clock went off.

• He jumped out of bed and ran to see who the parcel was for.

When we talk about a permanent or long-term situation that existed in the past, we use the past

simple rather than the past continuous:

• When I was a child I played the violin, (not …I was playing…)

However, if the situation was temporary, we can also use the past continuous. Compare:

• I was working in a car factory during the summer of 1976. (or I worked…) and

• He worked hard all his life, (not He was working…)

We use the past simple rather than the past continuous when we are talking about repeated

actions or events in the past:

• We visited Spain three times last year, (not We were visiting…)

• I went past her house every day. (not I was going…)

• She slept very badly whenever she stayed with her grandparents, (not …was sleeping…)

However, the past continuous can also be used when we want to emphasise that the repeated

actions only went on for a limited and temporary period of past time ():

• When Carlo was in hospital, we were visiting him twice a day. (or …we visited…)

• To get fit for the race, I was going to the sports centre every day. (or …I went…)

We use the past continuous when the repeated actions or events provide a longer background to

something else that happened ():

• During the time I started to get chest pains, I was playing tennis a lot.

 

Present Perfect Continuous

We use the present perfect continuous to talk about a situation or activity that started in the past

and has been in progress for a period until now. Sometimes we use the present perfect continuous

with expressions that indicate the time period (e.g. with since and for):

• I’ve been meaning to phone Jack since I heard he was back in the country.

• The competition has been running every year since 1980.

• She’s been living in New Zealand for over a year now.

• People have been saying for ages that the building should be pulled down.

Without such an expression, the present perfect continuous refers to a recent situation or activity

and focuses on its present results:

• Look! It’s been snowing.

• ‘You’re looking well.’ ‘I’ve been playing a lot of squash to lose weight.’

• ‘Haven’t seen anything of Rod for a while.’ ‘No, he’s been working in Germany.’

The situation or activity may still be going on, or it may just have stopped. Compare:

• We’ve been discussing the proposals for a number of years. (= still going on) and

• Your eyes are red – have you been crying? (= recently stopped)

• How long have you been waiting for me?

• How long have they been living next door to you?

• For more than two years I’ve been trying to get permission to extend my house.

• Unemployment has been rising steadily since the huge increase in oil prices.

We can use the present perfect continuous or a present tense (the present simple or the present

continuous) when we talk about a situation or activity that started in the past and is still

happening now or has just stopped. However, we use the present perfect continuous when we are

talking about how long the action or event has been going on. Compare:

• I see Tom most weekends, and

• I’ve been seeing a lot of Tom since he moved into the flat upstairs, (not I see…)

• It’s raining, and

• It’s been raining heavily all night, (not It’s raining…)

For the difference between the present perfect and present perfect continuous in sentences like

this, see Unit 8.

When we talk about situations or actions that went on over a past period of time but finished at a

particular point in time before now, we don’t use the present perfect continuous:

о • I was reading until midnight last night, (not I have been reading…)

•  She had been living in Spain before her family moved to Brazil, (not She has been living…)

• He put off the decision for as long as possible, but eventually he made up his mind and

bought the car. (not He has been putting off…)

We generally avoid the present perfect continuous with verbs that describe states.

 

 

Past Perfect and Past Simple

We use the past simple rather than the past perfect when we simply talk about a single activity or

«event in the past:

• I handed the letter to him. • Sorry we’re late, we took the wrong turning.

Notice the difference in meaning of these sentences with the past perfect and past simple:

• When he stopped laughing, everyone left. (= they left after he stopped laughing)

• When he stopped laughing, everyone had left. (= they left before he stopped laughing)

• I got up when the phone rang. (= the phone rang and then I got up)

• I had gone to bed when the phone rang. (= I went to bed and then the phone rang).

When we give an account of a sequence

of past events, we usually put these

events in chronological order with the

past simple. If we want to refer to an

event out of order – that is, it happened

before the last event we have talked

about – we use the present perfect.

 

We use the past perfect when we say what we wanted or hoped (etc.) to do, but didn’t:

• I had wanted to visit the gallery before I left Florence, but it’s closed on Sundays.

• Bill had hoped to retire at 60, but they persuaded him to stay on for a few more years.

Other verbs used like this include expect (to), mean (to), think (about + -ing).

When we use a time expression (e.g. after, as soon as, before, by the time (that), when) to say that

one event happened after another, we use either the past simple or past perfect for the event that

happened first and the past simple for the event that happened second:

• After Ivan (had) finished reading, he put out the light.

• When Carol (had) brushed her teeth, she went to bed.

But to emphasise that the second event is the result of the first, we prefer the past simple for both:

• She became famous after she appeared on the TV programme.

• When the teacher came in, all the children stood up.

With already and just (= a very short time before) we use the past perfect, not the past simple:

• The film had already begun by the time we got to the cinema.

• She had just stepped into her office when the telephone rang.

 

Passive Voice

 

Verbs which take an object (transitive verbs) can have a passive form. So we can make

corresponding passive sentences for:

• They destroyed the building. ≪—• The building was destroyed.

• The news surprised me. ≪—• I was surprised by the news.

Verbs which do not take an object (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms. For example,

there are no passive forms for the following sentences:

• I slept for nearly ten hours last night.

• The ship slowly disappeared from view.

A good dictionary will tell you whether verbs are transitive or intransitive.

However, many verbs can be used at different times with and without objects – that is, they can

be both transitive and intransitive. Compare:

• Are they meeting him at the station? (transitive) Is he being met at the airport? (passive)

• When shall we meet? (intransitive; no passive possible)

В Verbs that can be followed by either object + object or object + prepositional object in active

clauses can have two corresponding passive forms. The passive form you choose

depends on which is more appropriate in a particular context.

Other verbs like this include demonstrate, explain, introduce, mention, report, suggest.

We can make a passive form of transitive two- and three-word verbs (see Unit 114). Compare:

• Martha talked me into buying a motorbike. (= V + object + preposition) and

• I was talked into buying a motorbike by Martha.

• They gave over the whole programme to a report from Bosnia. (= V + adverb + object +

preposition) and

• The whole programme was given over to a report from Bosnia.

Some transitive two- and three-word verbs are rarely used in the passive:

• We got the money back for her, but it took ages, (rather than The money was got back…)

• I had to put out a hand to steady myself, (rather than A hand was put out…)

Other verbs like this include get down (= write what somebody says), let in (= when something

has a hole in it that allows water, light, etc. to get into it), let out (e.g. a scream), show off (=

encourage people to see something because you are proud of it), take after (= resemble).

 

U s ig  p a s s i v e s

The choice between an active and passive sentence allows us to present the same information in

two different orders. Compare:

active • The storm damaged the roof.

This sentence is about the storm, and

says what it did. [The storm is the

‘agent’.)

passive • The roof was damaged by the storm.

This sentence is about the roof, and says what

happened to it. (The ‘agent’ goes in a

prepositional phrase with by after the verb.)

Here are some situations where we typically choose a passive rather than an active.

• When the agent is not known, is ‘people in general’, is unimportant, or is obvious, we prefer

passives. In an active sentence we need to include the agent as subject; using a passive allows us

to omit the agent by leaving out the prepositional phrase with by:

• My office was broken into when I was on holiday, (unknown agent)

• An order form can be found on page 2. (agent = people in general)

• These boxes should be handled with care, (unimportant agent)

• She is being treated in hospital, (obvious agent; presumably ‘doctors’)

• In factual writing, particularly in describing procedures or processes, we often wish to omit the

agent, and use passives:

• Nuclear waste will still be radioactive even after 20,000 years, so it must be disposed of

very carefully. It can be stored as a liquid in stainless-steel containers which are encased in

concrete. The most dangerous nuclear waste can be turned into glass. It is planned to store

this glass in deep underground mines.

• In spoken English we often use a subject such as people, somebody, they, we, or you even when

we do not know who the agent is. In formal English, particularly writing, we often prefer to

use a passive. Compare:

• They’re installing the new computer system next month.

• The new computer system is being installed next month, (more formal)

Notice also that some verbs have corresponding nouns. These nouns can be used as the subject

of passive sentences, with a new passive verb introduced:

• The installation of the new computer system will be completed by next month.

• In English we usually prefer to put old information at the beginning of a sentence (or clause)

and new information at the end. Choosing the passive often allows us to do this. Compare

these two texts and notice where the old information (in italics) and new information (in bold)

is placed in the second sentence of each. The second text uses a passive:

• The three machines tested for the report contained different types of safety valve. The Boron

Group in Germany manufactured the machines.

• The three machines tested for the report contained different types of safety valve. The

machines were manufactured by the Boron Group in Germany.

• It is often more natural to put agents (subjects) which consist of long expressions at the end of

a sentence. Using the passive allows us to do this. So, for example:

• I was surprised by Don’s decision to give up his job and move to Sydney.

is more natural than ‘Don’s decision to give up his job and move to Sydney surprised me.’

 

F o r m i g   q u e s t i os ; r e p o r t ig   q u e s t i os

Forming questions

• What are you doing tomorrow? • Where have you been?

 Some questions begin with a wh-word. We can call these wh-questions:

Some questions can be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. We can call these yes/no questions.

• Have you had to come far? • Did she leave any message?

QU there is an auxiliary verb (be, do, have, can, will, etc.) we put it in front of the subject:

• Have you ever visited California? • Why are you telling me this now?

If there is more than one auxiliary verb, we put only the first auxiliary in front of the subject:

• Will they be arrested if they refuse to leave? (not Will be they arrested…?)

We can make questions in a similar way when be is a main verb:

• Was she happy when she lived in France? • When is he likely to arrive?

When we ask yes/no questions with have as the main verb, we usually use Have…got…? or

Do…have…? Questions such as ‘Have you a pen?’ are rather formal (see also Unit 27):

• Do you have… / Have you got a reservation? (rather than Have you a…?)

If there is no other auxiliary verb, we make a question by putting do or does (present simple), or

did (past simple) in front of the subject. A bare infinitive comes after the subject:

• Does anyone know where I left my diary? • When did you last see Mary?

If we use what, which, who or whose as the subject, we don’t use do:

• What happened to your car? (not What did happen…?)

Compare:

• Who (= subject) did you speak to at the party? and • Who (= object) spoke to you?

Notice that we can sometimes use do when what, which, who or whose is subject if we want to

encourage the speaker to give an answer. Do is stressed in spoken English:

• Come on, be honest – who did tell you?

Study how we ask questions about what people think or say using a that-c\ause:

• When do you think (that) he will arrive? • What do you suggest (that) I should do next?

We can ask questions like this with advise, propose, recommend, say, suggest, suppose, think.

When the w^-word is the subject of the second clause we don’t include that:

• Who did you say was coming to see me this morning? (not …say that was coming…?)

Reporting questions

When we report a wh-question we use a reporting clause (see Unit 43) followed by a clause

beginning with a м/^-word. When we report a yes/no question we use a reporting clause

followed by a clause beginning with either if or whether:

• She asked me what the problem was. • Liz wanted to know if/whether I’d seen Tony.

We usually put the subject before the verb in the wh-, if-, or whether-clause:

а • ‘Have you seen Paul recently?’ -• She wanted to know if I had seen Paul recently.

•However, if the original question begins what, which, or who followed by be + complement, we

can put the complement before or after be in the report:

• ‘Who was the winner?’ —> I asked who the winner was. (or …who was the winner. )

Notice that we don’t use a form of do in the wh-, if-, or wh ether-clause:

• She asked me where I (had) found it. (not …where did I find it./…where I did find it.)

However, if we are reporting a negative question, we can use a negative form of do:

• He asked (me) why I didn’t want anything to eat.

 

As k i g   ad   as w e r ig  e g a t i v e   q u e s t i os

We can sometimes use negative yes/no or wh-questions to make a suggestion, to persuade

someone, to criticise, or to show that we are surprised, etc.:

• Why don’t we go out for a meal? (a suggestion)

• Wouldn’t it be better to go tomorrow instead? (persuading someone)

• Can’t you play that trumpet somewhere else? (a criticism)

• Didn’t you tell them who you were? (showing surprise)

•’D We usually make a negative yes/no or wh- (particularly why) question with an auxiliary

verb + -n’t before the subject:

• Doesn’t he want to come with us? • Haven’t you got anything better to do?

• Why can’t we go by bus?

• ‘I’m not sure I like their new house.’ ‘What don’t you like about it?’

We can also ask a negative question using a negative statement and a positive ‘tag’ at the end:

• We don’t have to leave just yet, do we?

In more formal speech and writing, or when we want to give some special emphasis to the

negative (perhaps to show that we are angry, very surprised, or that we want particularly to

persuade someone), we can put not after the subject:

• Did she not realise that she had broken the window?

• Can they not remember anything about it? • Why did you not return the money?

If the question word is the subject, we put -n’t or not after the auxiliary verb:

• Who wouldn’t like to own an expensive sports car? {not Who not would like…?)

We sometimes use negative words other thaot (or -n’t) such as never, no, nobody, nothing,

and nowhere:

• Why do you never help me with my homework? (or Why don’t you ever help…?)

• Have you no money left? (or Don’t you have any money left?)

• Have you nowhere to go? (or Haven’t you got anywhere to go?)

(‘Haven’t you any…?’ and ‘Haven’t you anywhere…?’ would be formal in the last two examples.]

Some negative questions anticipate that the answer will be or should be ‘Yes’:

• ‘Wasn’t Chris in Japan when the earthquake struck?’ ‘Yes, he was.’

• ‘Didn’t I see you in Paris last week?’ ‘That’s right.’

Other negative questions anticipate that the answer will be or should be ‘No’:

• ‘What’s wrong? Don’t you eat fish?’ ‘No, it disagrees with me.’

• ‘Haven’t you finished yet?’ ‘Sorry, not yet.’

It is usually clear from the context which kind of answer is anticipated.

Notice how we answer negative questions:

• ‘Don’t you enjoy helping me?’ ‘Yes.’ (= Yes, I do enjoy it.) or ‘No.’ (= No, I don’t enjoy it.)

• ‘You’re not living here, are you?’ ‘Yes.’ (= Yes, I am living here.) or ‘No.’ (= No, I’m not

living here.)

We can make a suggestion with Why not + verb or Why don’t/doesn’t…:

• Why not decorate the house yourself? (or Why don’t you decorate…?)

• Why not give her what she wants f (or Why don’t we give her…?)

Why didn’t… isn’t used to make a suggestion, but can be used to criticise someone:

• Why didn’t you tell me that in the first place?

 

 

W h – q u e s t i os    w i t h   h o w , w h a t , w h i c h , ad   w h o

Study these sentences:

• Which biscuits did you make – the chocolate ones or the others? (rather than What…?)

• I’ve got orange juice or apple juice. Which would you prefer? (rather than What…?)

• He just turned away when I asked him. What do you think he meant? (not Which…?)

• What do you want to do this weekend? (not Which…?)

We usually use which when we are asking about a fixed or limited number of things or people,

and what when we are not. Often, however, we can use either which or what with little

difference in meaning. Compare:

• What towns do we go through on the way? (the speaker doesn’t know the area) and

• Which towns do we go through on the way? (the speaker knows the area and the towns in it)

We usually use who to ask a question about people:

• Who will captain the team if Nick isn’t available?

However, we use which when we want to identify a person or people out of a group (for

example, in a crowded room, or on a photograph) and when we ask about particular classes of

people. We can use what to ask about a person’s job or position:

• ‘Which is your brother?’ ‘The one next to Ken.’

• Which would you rather be – a doctor or a vet? (or What would…?)

• ‘What’s your sister?’ ‘She’s a computer programmer.’

We use which, not who or what, in questions before one(s) and of:

• Which one of us should tell Jean the news?

• I’ve decided to buy one of these sweaters. Which one do you think I should choose? (rather

than What one do you think…?)

• Which of these drawings was done by you? (not What of…)

• Which of you would like to go first? (not Who of…)

When we use who or what as a subject, the verb that follows is singular, even if a plural answer

is expected:

• Who wants a cup of coffee? (said to a number of people)

• What is there to do in Leeds over Christmas? (expects an answer giving a number of

activities)

Study the use of how and what in these questions:

What’s this one called? (not How…) • What do you think of her work? (not How…)

What is the blue button for? (= What purpose does it have?) (not How…)

How about (having) a swim? (= a suggestion) (or What about…)

What is your brother like? (= asking what kind of person he is) (not How…

How is your brother? (= asking about health) («of What…

What was the journey like? (= asking an opinion) (not How.

How was the journey? (= asking an opinion) (not What…

What do you like about it? (= asking

for specific details) (not How…)

How do you like it? (not What…)

(i) = asking for a general opinion

(ii) = asking for details about coffee,

tea or a meat dish (‘How would

you like it?’ is also possible).

Present Simple Tense

I sing

How do we make the Present Simple Tense?

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		do		base

There are three important exceptions:

1.     For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.

2.     For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.

3.     For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I, you, we, they			like	coffee.
	He, she, it			likes	coffee.
–	I, you, we, they	do	not	like	coffee.
	He, she, it	does	not	like	coffee.
?	Do	I, you, we, they		like	coffee?
	Does	he, she, it		like	coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

	subject	main verb
+	I	am		French.
	You, we, they	are		French.
	He, she, it	is		French.
–	I	am	not	old.
	You, we, they	are	not	old.
	He, she, it	is	not	old.
?	Am	I		late?
	Are	you, we, they		late?
	Is	he, she, it		late?

How do we use the Present Simple Tense?

We use the present simple tense when:

• the action is general
• the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
• the action is not only happening now
• the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.
past	present	future
It is John’s job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

• I live in New York.
• The Moon goes round the Earth.
• John drives a taxi.
• He does not drive a bus.
• We meet every Thursday.
• We do not work at night.
• Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the present simple tense for situations that are not general. We can use the present simple tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb “to be” in the present simple tense – some of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right? Tara is not at home. You are happy.
past	present	future
The situation is now.

 

I am not fat. Why are you so beautiful? Ram is tall.
past	present	future
The situation is general. Past, present and future.

 

 

Present Continuous

am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

• You are watching TV.
• Are you watching TV?
• You are not watching TV.

Complete List of Present Continuous Forms

USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.

Examples:

• You are learning English now.
• You are not swimming now.
• Are you sleeping?
• I am sitting.
• I am not standing.
• Is he sitting or standing?
• They are reading their books.
• They are not watching television.
• What are you doing?
• Why aren’t you doing your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, “now” can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)

• I am studying to become a doctor.
• I am not studying to become a dentist.
• I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.
• I am not reading any books right now.
• Are you working on any special projects at work?
• Aren’t you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

• I am meeting some friends after work.
• I am not going to the party tonight.
• Is he visiting his parents next weekend?
• Isn’t he coming with us tonight?

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with “Always”

The Present Continuous with words such as “always” or “constantly” expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words “always” or “constantly” between “be” and “verb+ing.”

Examples:

• She is always coming to class late.
• He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.
• I don’t like them because they are always complaining.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certaion-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present.

Examples:

• She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct
• She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You are still watching TV.
• Are you still watching TV?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Right now, Tom is writing the letter. Active
• Right now, the letter is being written by Tom. Passive

Simple Past

 [VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

• You called Debbie.
• Did you call Debbie?
• You did not call Debbie.

USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

• I saw a movie yesterday.
• I didn’t see a play yesterday.
• Last year, I traveled to Japan.
• Last year, I didn’t travel to Korea.
• Did you have dinner last night?
• She washed her car.
• He didn’t wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

• I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
• He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
• Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

• I lived in Brazil for two years.
• Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
• They sat at the beach all day.
• They did not stay at the party the entire time.
• We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
• A: How long did you wait for them?
  B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as “used to.” To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

• I studied French when I was a child.
• He played the violin.
• He didn’t play the piano.
• Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
• She worked at the movie theater after school.
• They never went to school, they always skipped class.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression “used to.”

Examples:

• She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
• He didn’t like tomatoes before.
• Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
• People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are ofteot complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word “when” such as “when I dropped my pen…” or “when class began…” These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

• When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
• She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether “when I paid her one dollar” is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

• I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You just called Debbie.
• Did you just call Debbie?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Tom repaired the car. Active
• The car was repaired by Tom. Passive

Past Continuous

FORM

[was/were + present participle]

Examples:

• You were studying when she called.
• Were you studying when she called?
• You were not studying when she called.

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

• I was watching TV when she called.
• When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
• While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
• What were you doing when the earthquake started?
• I was listening to my iPod, so I didn’t hear the fire alarm.
• You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
• While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
• Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
• While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
• A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?
  B: I was snowboarding.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
• At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
• Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

IMPORTANT

In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished. In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action.

Examples:

• Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner.
  I started eating at 6 PM.
• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
  I started earlier; and at 6 PM, I was in the process of eating dinner.

USE 3 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

• I was studying while he was making dinner.
• While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.
• Were you listening while he was talking?
• I wasn’t paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.
• What were you doing while you were waiting?
• Thomas wasn’t working, and I wasn’t working either.
• They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

USE 4 Atmosphere

In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.

Example:

• When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.

USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with “Always”

The Past Continuous with words such as “always” or “constantly” expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression “used to” but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words “always” or “constantly” between “be” and “verb+ing.”

Examples:

• She was always coming to class late.
• He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.
• I didn’t like them because they were always complaining.

While vs. When

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are ofteot complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word “when” such as “when she called” or “when it bit me.” Other clauses begin with “while” such as “while she was sleeping” and “while he was surfing.” When you talk about things in the past, “when” is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas “while” is usually followed by Past Continuous. “While” expresses the idea of “during that time.” Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence.

Examples:

• I was studying when she called.
• While I was studying, she called.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certaion-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past.

Examples:

• Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct
• Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You were just studying when she called.
• Were you just studying when she called?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Active
• The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. Passive

Present Perfect

FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?
• You have not seen that movie many times.

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.
• There have been many earthquakes in California.
• People have traveled to the Moon.
• People have not traveled to Mars.
• Have you read the book yet?
• Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
• A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
  B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of “unspecified time” can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:

TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, “I have the experience of…” You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

• I have been to France.
  This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
• I have been to France three times.
  You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
• I have never been to France.
  This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
• I think I have seen that movie before.
• He has never traveled by train.
• Joan has studied two foreign languages.
• A: Have you ever met him?
  B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.
• Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
• My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.
• Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
• Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn’t mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
• Bill has still not arrived.
• The rain hasn’t stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
• We have had many major problems while working on this project.
• She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:

• Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
• I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
• They have had three tests in the last week.
• She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far.
• My car has broken down three times this week.

NOTICE

“Last year” and “in the last year” are very different in meaning. “Last year” means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. “In the last year” means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

• I went to Mexico last year.
  I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
• I have been to Mexico in the last year.
  I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and now.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. “For five minutes,” “for two weeks,” and “since Tuesday” are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

• I have had a cold for two weeks.
• She has been in England for six months.
• Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words “live,” “work,” “teach,” and “study” are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You have only seen that movie one time.
• Have you only seen that movie one time?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Many tourists have visited that castle. Active
• That castle has been visited by many tourists. Passive

Present Perfect Continuous

 [has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

• You have been waiting here for two hours.
• Have you been waiting here for two hours?
• You have not been waiting here for two hours.

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. “For five minutes,” “for two weeks,” and “since Tuesday” are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

Examples:

• They have been talking for the last hour.
• She has been working at that company for three years.
• What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
• James has been teaching at the university since June.
• We have been waiting here for over two hours!
• Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?

USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as “for two weeks.” Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of “lately.” We often use the words “lately” or “recently” to emphasize this meaning.

Examples:

• Recently, I have been feeling really tired.
• She has been watching too much television lately.
• Have you been exercising lately?
• Mary has been feeling a little depressed.
• Lisa has not been practicing her English.
• What have you been doing?

IMPORTANT

Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of “lately” or “recently.” If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as “Have you been feeling alright?”, it can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as “Have you been smoking?” can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect.

Examples:

• Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct
• Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You have only been waiting here for one hour.
• Have you only been waiting here for one hour?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Recently, John has been doing the work. Active
• Recently, the work has been being done by John. Passive

NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous is less commonly used in its passive form.

Past Perfect

FORM

[had + past participle]

Examples:

• You had studied English before you moved to New York.
• Had you studied English before you moved to New York?
• You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

Examples:

• I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.
• I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
• Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.
• Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
• She only understood the movie because she had read the book.
• Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.
• We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.
• A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?
  B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

• We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
• By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
• They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.

Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words “live,” “work,” “teach,” and “study” are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

Example:

• She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

MOREOVER

If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when “before” or “after” is used in the sentence. The words “before” and “after” actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct.

Examples:

• She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
• She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

HOWEVER

If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used.

Examples:

• She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct
• She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You had previously studied English before you moved to New York.
• Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic’s license. Active
• Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic’s license. Passive

Past Perfect Continuous

FORM

[had been + present participle]

Examples:

• You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
• Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
• You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. “For five minutes” and “for two weeks” are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Examples:

• They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
• She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.
• How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
• Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.
• James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.
• A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara?
  B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

• Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
• Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
• Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as “for five minutes,” “for two weeks” or “since Friday,” many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

• He was tired because he was exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was exercising at that exact moment.
• He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been exercising over a period of time. It is possible that he was still exercising at that moment OR that he had just finished.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect.

Examples:

• The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct
• The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived.
• Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant’s fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. Active
• The restaurant’s fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. Passive

NOTE: Passive forms of the Past Perfect Continuous are not common.

Simple Future

Simple Future has two different forms in English: “will” and “be going to.” Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both “will” and “be going to” refer to a specific time in the future.

FORM Will

[will + verb]

Examples:

• You will help him later.
• Will you help him later?
• You will not help him later.

FORM Be Going To

[am/is/are + going to + verb]

Examples:

• You are going to meet Jane tonight.
• Are you going to meet Jane tonight?
• You are not going to meet Jane tonight.

USE 1 “Will” to Express a Voluntary Action

“Will” often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use “will” to respond to someone else’s complaint or request for help. We also use “will” when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use “will not” or “won’t” when we refuse to voluntarily do something.

Examples:

• I will send you the information when I get it.
• I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it.
• Will you help me move this heavy table?
• Will you make dinner?
• I will not do your homework for you.
• I won’t do all the housework myself!
• A: I’m really hungry.
  B: I‘ll make some sandwiches.
• A: I’m so tired. I’m about to fall asleep.
  B: I‘ll get you some coffee.
• A: The phone is ringing.
  B: I‘ll get it.

USE 2 “Will” to Express a Promise

“Will” is usually used in promises.

Examples:

• I will call you when I arrive.
• If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance.
• I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.
• Don’t worry, I‘ll be careful.
• I won’t tell anyone your secret.

USE 3 “Be going to” to Express a Plan

“Be going to” expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.

Examples:

• He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.
• She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.
• A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?
  B: We are going to meet at 6 PM.
• I‘m going to be an actor when I grow up.
• Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.
• They are going to drive all the way to Alaska.
• Who are you going to invite to the party?
• A: Who is going to make John’s birthday cake?
  B: Sue is going to make John’s birthday cake.

USE 4 “Will” or “Be Going to” to Express a Prediction

Both “will” and “be going to” can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In “prediction” sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.

Examples:

• The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.
• The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year.

• John Smith will be the next President.
• John Smith is going to be the next President.

• The movie “Zenith” will win several Academy Awards.
• The movie “Zenith” is going to win several Academy Awards.

IMPORTANT

In the Simple Future, it is not always clear which USE the speaker has in mind. Often, there is more than one way to interpret a sentence’s meaning.

No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used.

Examples:

• When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct
• When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will never help him.
• Will you ever help him?

• You are never going to meet Jane.
• Are you ever going to meet Jane?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• John will finish the work by 5:00 PM. Active
• The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. Passive

• Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. Active
• A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight. Passive

Future Continuous

Future Continuous has two different forms: “will be doing ” and “be going to be doing.” Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Continuous with “Will”

[will be + present participle]

Examples:

• You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
• Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
• You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

FORM Future Continuous with “Be Going To “

[am/is/are + going to be + present participle]

Examples:

• You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
• Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
• You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

REMEMBER: It is possible to use either “will” or “be going to” to create the Future Continuous with little difference in meaning.

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future

Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

• I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.
• I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.
• I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens and you need to contact me.
• He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Jennifer when she arrives.

Notice in the examples above that the interruptions (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
  I will be in the process of eating dinner.
• At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.
  We will be in the process of driving through the desert.

REMEMBER

In the Simple Future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the Future Continuous, a specific time interrupts the action.

Examples:

• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner.
  I am going to start eating at 6 PM.
• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
  I am going to start earlier and I will be in the process of eating dinner at 6 PM.

USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future

When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

• I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.
• Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
• While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.
  Notice “is reading” because of the time clause containing “while.”

USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future

In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future.

Example:

• When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future tenses, the Future Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Continuous, Present Continuous is used.

Examples:

• While I am going to be finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Not Correct
• While I am finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Correct

AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Future.

Examples:

• Jane will be being at my house when you arrive. Not Correct
• Jane will be at my house when you arrive. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will still be waiting for her when her plane arrives.
• Will you still be waiting for her when her plane arrives?

• You are still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives.
• Are you still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes. Active
• At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John. Passive

• At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes. Active
• At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John. Passive

NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Continuous are not common.

Future Perfect

Future Perfect has two different forms: “will have done” and “be going to have done.” Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect with “Will”

[will have + past participle]

Examples:

• You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.
• Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?
• You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

FORM Future Perfect with “Be Going To”

[am/is/are + going to have + past participle]

Examples:

• You are going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.
• Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?
• You are not going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

NOTE: It is possible to use either “will” or “be going to” to create the Future Perfect with little or no difference in meaning.

Complete List of Future Perfect Forms

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Future

The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future.

Examples:

• By next November, I will have received my promotion.
• By the time he gets home, she is going to have cleaned the entire house.
• I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o’clock.
• Will she have learned enough Chinese to communicate before she moves to Beijing?
• Sam is probably going to have completed the proposal by the time he leaves this afternoon.
• By the time I finish this course, I will have taken ten tests.
• How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50?

Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Future (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Future Perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in the future.

Examples:

• I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave.
• By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week.

Although the above use of Future Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words “live,” “work,” “teach,” and “study” are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used.

Examples:

• I am going to see a movie when I will have finished my homework. Not Correct
• I am going to see a movie when I have finished my homework. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will only have learned a few words.
• Will you only have learned a few words?

• You are only going to have learned a few words.
• Are you only going to have learned a few words?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• They will have completed the project before the deadline. Active
• The project will have been completed before the deadline. Passive

• They are going to have completed the project before the deadline. Active
• The project is going to have been completed before the deadline. Passive

Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: “will have been doing ” and “be going to have been doing.” Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect Continuous with “Will”

[will have been + present participle]

Examples:

• You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.
• Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?
• You will not have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

FORM Future Perfect Continuous with “Be Going To”

[am/is/are + going to have been + present participle]

Examples:

• You are going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.
• Are you going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?
• You are not going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

NOTE: It is possible to use either “will” or “be going to” to create the Future Perfect Continuous with little or no difference in meaning.

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future

We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future. “For five minutes,” “for two weeks,” and “since Friday” are all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference point in the future.

Examples:

• They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.
• She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally closes.
• James will have been teaching at the university for more than a year by the time he leaves for Asia.
• How long will you have been studying when you graduate?
• We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to Anchorage.
• A: When you finish your English course, will you have been living in New Zealand for over a year?
  B: No, I will not have been living here that long.

Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because these future events are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future

Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

• Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.
• Claudia’s English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years.

Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as “for five minutes,” “for two weeks” or “since Friday,” many English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the future. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

• He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he will be tired because he will be exercising at that exact moment in the future.
• He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he will be tired because he will have been exercising for a period of time. It is possible that he will still be exercising at that moment OR that he will just have finished.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous is used.

Examples:

• You won’t get a promotion until you will have been working here as long as Tim. Not Correct
• You won’t get a promotion until you have been working here as long as Tim. Correct

AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certaion-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Future Perfect .

Examples:

• Ned will have been having his driver’s license for over two years. Not Correct
• Ned will have had his driver’s license for over two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.
• Will you only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?

• You are only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.
• Are you only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. Active
• The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. Passive

• The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. Active
• The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. Passive

NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Perfect Continuous are not common.

 

 

 

Common English Irregular Verb List

 

Base Form	Past Simple	Past Participle	3rd Person Singular	Present Participle / Gerund
Abide	Abode/Abided	Abode/Abided/Abidden	Abides	Abiding
Alight	Alit/Alighted	Alit/Alighted	Alights	Alighting
Arise	Arose	Arisen	Arises	Arising
Awake	Awoke	Awoken	Awakes	Awaking
Be	Was/Were	Been	Is	Being
Bear	Bore	Born/Borne	Bears	Bearing
Beat	Beat	Beaten	Beats	Beating
Become	Became	Become	Becomes	Becoming
Begin	Began	Begun	Begins	Beginning
Behold	Beheld	Beheld	Beholds	Beholding
Bend	Bent	Bent	Bends	Bending
Bet	Bet	Bet	Bets	Betting
Bid	Bade	Bidden	Bids	Bidding
Bid	Bid	Bid	Bids	Bidding
Bind	Bound	Bound	Binds	Binding
Bite	Bit	Bitten	Bites	Biting
Bleed	Bled	Bled	Bleeds	Bleeding
Blow	Blew	Blown	Blows	Blowing
Break	Broke	Broken	Breaks	Breaking
Breed	Bred	Bred	Breeds	Breeding
Bring	Brought	Brought	Brings	Bringing
Broadcast	Broadcast/Broadcasted	Broadcast/Broadcasted	Broadcasts	Broadcasting
Build	Built	Built	Builds	Building
Burn	Burnt/Burned	Burnt/Burned	Burns	Burning
Burst	Burst	Burst	Bursts	Bursting
Bust	Bust	Bust	Busts	Busting
Buy	Bought	Bought	Buys	Buying
Cast	Cast	Cast	Casts	Casting
Catch	Caught	Caught	Catches	Catching
Choose	Chose	Chosen	Chooses	Choosing
Clap	Clapped/Clapt	Clapped/Clapt	Claps	Clapping
Cling	Clung	Clung	Clings	Clinging
Clothe	Clad/Clothed	Clad/Clothed	Clothes	Clothing
Come	Came	Come	Comes	Coming
Cost	Cost	Cost	Costs	Costing
Creep	Crept	Crept	Creeps	Creeping
Cut	Cut	Cut	Cuts	Cutting
Dare	Dared/Durst	Dared	Dares	Daring
Deal	Dealt	Dealt	Deals	Dealing
Dig	Dug	Dug	Digs	Digging
Dive	Dived/Dove	Dived	Dives	Diving
Do	Did	Done	Does	Doing
Draw	Drew	Drawn	Draws	Drawing
Dream	Dreamt/Dreamed	Dreamt/Dreamed	Dreams	Dreaming
Drink	Drank	Drunk	Drinks	Drinking
Drive	Drove	Driven	Drives	Driving
Dwell	Dwelt	Dwelt	Dwells	Dwelling
Eat	Ate	Eaten	Eats	Eating
Fall	Fell	Fallen	Falls	Falling
Feed	Fed	Fed	Feeds	Feeding
Feel	Felt	Felt	Feels	Feeling
Fight	Fought	Fought	Fights	Fighting
Find	Found	Found	Finds	Finding
Fit	Fit/Fitted	Fit/Fitted	Fits	Fitting
Flee	Fled	Fled	Flees	Fleeing
Fling	Flung	Flung	Flings	Flinging
Fly	Flew	Flown	Flies	Flying
Forbid	Forbade/Forbad	Forbidden	Forbids	Forbidding
Forecast	Forecast/Forecasted	Forecast/Forecasted	Forecasts	Forecasting
Foresee	Foresaw	Foreseen	Foresees	Foreseeing
Foretell	Foretold	Foretold	Foretells	Foretelling
Forget	Forgot	Forgotten	Forgets	Foregetting
Forgive	Forgave	Forgiven	Forgives	Forgiving
Forsake	Forsook	Forsaken	Forsakes	Forsaking
Freeze	Froze	Frozen	Freezes	Freezing
Frostbite	Frostbit	Frostbitten	Frostbites	Frostbiting
Get	Got	Got/Gotten	Gets	Getting
Give	Gave	Given	Gives	Giving
Go	Went	Gone/Been	Goes	Going
Grind	Ground	Ground	Grinds	Grinding
Grow	Grew	Grown	Grows	Growing
Handwrite	Handwrote	Handwritten	Handwrites	Handwriting
Hang	Hung/Hanged	Hung/Hanged	Hangs	Hanging
Have	Had	Had	Has	Having
Hear	Heard	Heard	Hears	Hearing
Hide	Hid	Hidden	Hides	Hiding
Hit	Hit	Hit	Hits	Hitting
Hold	Held	Held	Holds	Holding
Hurt	Hurt	Hurt	Hurts	Hurting
Inlay	Inlaid	Inlaid	Inlays	Inlaying
Input	Input/Inputted	Input/Inputted	Inputs	Inputting
Interlay	Interlaid	Interlaid	Interlays	Interlaying
Keep	Kept	Kept	Keeps	Keeping
Kneel	Knelt/Kneeled	Knelt/Kneeled	Kneels	Kneeling
Knit	Knit/Knitted	Knit/Knitted	Knits	Knitting
Know	Knew	Known	Knows	Knowing
Lay	Laid	Laid	Lays	laying
Lead	Led	Led	Leads	Leading
Lean	Leant/Leaned	Leant/Leaned	Leans	Leaning
Leap	Leapt/Leaped	Leapt/Leaped	Leaps	Leaping
Learn	Learnt/Learned	Learnt/Learned	Learns	Learning
Leave	Left	Left	Leaves	Leaving
Lend	Lent	Lent	Lends	Lending
Let	Let	Let	Lets	Letting
Lie	Lay	Lain	Lies	Lying
Light	Lit	Lit	Lights	Lighting
Lose	Lost	Lost	Loses	Losing
Make	Made	Made	Makes	Making
Mean	Meant	Meant	Means	Meaning
Meet	Met	Met	Meets	Meeting
Melt	Melted	Molten/Melted	Melts	Melting
Mislead	Misled	Misled	Misleads	Misleading
Mistake	Mistook	Mistaken	Mistakes	Mistaking
Misunderstand	Misunderstood	Misunderstood	Misunderstands	Misunderstanding
Miswed	Miswed/Miswedded	Miswed/Miswedded	Misweds	Miswedding
Mow	Mowed	Mown	Mows	Mowing
Overdraw	Overdrew	Overdrawn	Overdraws	Overdrawing
Overhear	Overheard	Overheard	Overhears	Overhearing
Overtake	Overtook	Overtaken	Overtakes	Overtaking
Pay	Paid	Paid	Pays	Paying
Preset	Preset	Preset	Presets	Presetting
Prove	Proved	Proven/Proved	Proves	Proving
Put	Put	Put	Puts	Putting
Quit	Quit	Quit	Quits	Quitting
Re-prove	Re-proved	Re-proven/Re-proved	Re-proves	Re-proving
Read	Read	Read	Reads	Reading
Rid	Rid/Ridded	Rid/Ridded	Rids	Ridding
Ride	Rode	Ridden	Rides	Riding
Ring	Rang	Rung	Rings	Ringing
Rise	Rose	Risen	Rises	Rising
Rive	Rived	Riven/Rived	Rives	Riving
Run	Ran	Run	Runs	Running
Saw	Sawed	Sawn/Sawed	Saws	Sawing
Say	Said	Said	Says	Saying
See	Saw	Seen	Sees	Seeing
Seek	Sought	Sought	Seeks	Seeking
Sell	Sold	Sold	Sells	Selling
Send	Sent	Sent	Sends	Sending
Set	Set	Set	Sets	Setting
Sew	Sewed	Sewn/Sewed	Sews	Sewing
Shake	Shook	Shaken	Shakes	Shaking
Shave	Shaved	Shaven/Shaved	Shaves	Shaving
Shear	Shore/Sheared	Shorn/Sheared	Shears	Shearing
Shed	Shed	Shed	Sheds	Shedding
Shine	Shone	Shone	Shines	Shining
Shoe	Shod	Shod	Shoes	Shoeing
Shoot	Shot	Shot	Shoots	Shooting
Show	Showed	Shown	Shows	Showing
Shrink	Shrank	Shrunk	Shrinks	Shrinking
Shut	Shut	Shut	Shuts	Shutting
Sing	Sang	Sung	Sings	Singing
Sink	Sank	Sunk	Sinks	Sinking
Sit	Sat	Sat	Sits	Sitting
Slay	Slew	Slain	Slays	Slaying
Sleep	Slept	Slept	Sleeps	Sleeping
Slide	Slid	Slid/Slidden	Slides	Sliding
Sling	Slung	Slung	Slings	Slinging
Slink	Slunk	Slunk	Slinks	Slinking
Slit	Slit	Slit	Slits	Slitting
Smell	Smelt/Smelled	Smelt/Smelled	Smells	Smelling
Sneak	Sneaked/Snuck	Sneaked/Snuck	Sneaks	Sneaking
Soothsay	Soothsaid	Soothsaid	Soothsays	Soothsaying
Sow	Sowed	Sown	Sows	Sowing
Speak	Spoke	Spoken	Speaks	Speaking
Speed	Sped/Speeded	Sped/Speeded	Speeds	Speeding
Spell	Spelt/Spelled	Spelt/Spelled	Spells	Spelling
Spend	Spent	Spent	Spends	Spending
Spill	Spilt/Spilled	Spilt/Spilled	Spills	Spilling
Spin	Span/Spun	Spun	Spins	Spinning
Spit	Spat/Spit	Spat/Spit	Spits	Spitting
Split	Split	Split	Splits	Splitting
Spoil	Spoilt/Spoiled	Spoilt/Spoiled	Spoils	Spoiling
Spread	Spread	Spread	Spreads	Spreading
Spring	Sprang	Sprung	Springs	Springing
Stand	Stood	Stood	Stands	Standing
Steal	Stole	Stolen	Steals	Stealing
Stick	Stuck	Stuck	Sticks	Sticking
Sting	Stung	Stung	Stings	Stinging
Stink	Stank	Stunk	Stinks	Stinking
Stride	Strode/Strided	Stridden	Strides	Striding
Strike	Struck	Struck/Stricken	Strikes	Striking
String	Strung	Strung	Strings	Stringing
Strip	Stript/Stripped	Stript/Stripped	Strips	Stripping
Strive	Strove	Striven	Strives	Striving
Sublet	Sublet	Sublet	Sublets	Subletting
Sunburn	Sunburned/Sunburnt	Sunburned/Sunburnt	Sunburns	Sunburning
Swear	Swore	Sworn	Swears	Swearing
Sweat	Sweat/Sweated	Sweat/Sweated	Sweats	Sweating
Sweep	Swept/Sweeped	Swept/Sweeped	Sweeps	Sweeping
Swell	Swelled	Swollen	Swells	Swelling
Swim	Swam	Swum	Swims	Swimming
Swing	Swung	Swung	Swings	Swinging
Take	Took	Taken	Takes	Taking
Teach	Taught	Taught	Teaches	Teaching
Tear	Tore	Torn	Tears	Tearing
Tell	Told	Told	Tells	Telling
Think	Thought	Thought	Thinks	Thinking
Thrive	Throve/Thrived	Thriven/Thrived	Thrives	Thriving
Throw	Threw	Thrown	Throws	Throwing
Thrust	Thrust	Thrust	Thrusts	Thrusting
Tread	Trod	Trodden	Treads	Treading
Undergo	Underwent	Undergone	Undergoes	Undergoing
Understand	Understood	Understood	Understands	Understanding
Undertake	Undertook	Undertaken	Undertakes	Undertaking
Upset	Upset	Upset	Upsets	Upsetting
Vex	Vext/Vexed	Vext/Vexed	Vexes	Vexing
Wake	Woke	Woken	Wakes	Waking
Wear	Wore	Worn	Wears	Wearing
Weave	Wove	Woven	Weaves	Weaving
Wed	Wed/Wedded	Wed/Wedded	Weds	Wedding
Weep	Wept	Wept	Weeps	Weeping
Wend	Wended/Went	Wended/Went	Wends	Wending
Wet	Wet/Wetted	Wet/Wetted	Wets	Wetting
Win	Won	Won	Wins	Winning
Wind	Wound	Wound	Winds	Winding
Withdraw	Withdrew	Withdrawn	Withdraws	Withdrawing
Withhold	Withheld	Withheld	Withholds	Withholding
Withstand	Withstood	Withstood	Withstands	Withstanding
Wring	Wrung	Wrung	Wrings	Wringing
Write	Wrote	Written	Writes	Writing
Zinc	Zinced/Zincked	Zinced/Zincked	Zincs/Zincks	Zincking