Dysrhythmias (junctional and ventricular).
Interventions for clients with junctional and ventricular dysrhythmias
Cardiac dysrhythmias are disturbances of cardiac electrical impulse formation, conduction, or both. Many diseases can affect the electrical activity of the heart, causing dysrhythmias. Although more common in older adults, dysrhythmias may occur in people of any age. Many dysrhythmias are benign; however, some cause cardiac dysfunction, and a few result in cardiac arrest.
To understand dysrhythmias and to interpret these disturbances correctly, an understanding of cardiac electrophysiology, the conduction system of the heart, and the principles of electrocardiography is needed.
Any disorder of the heartbeat is termed dysrhythmia. Historically, the term arrhythmia has been used in the literature; however, it means an absence of cardiac rhythm. Although the terms are often used interchangeably, dysrhythmia, which means a disturbance in cardiac rhythm, is more accurate.
Dysrhythmias result from a disturbance in impulse formation (either from an abnormal rate or from an ectopic focus), from a disturbance in impulse conduction (delays and blocks), or from both mechanisms. Although many dysrhythmias have no clinical manifestations, many others have serious consequences. A summary of key features is provided in сhart
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Dysrhythmia Terminology
TACHYDYSRHYTHIVIIAS
Tachydysrhythmias are heart rates greater than 100 beats/min.
These rhythms may have serious hemodynamic consequences in the adult client with coronary artery disease (CAD). Coronary artery blood flow occurs predominantly during diastole, when the aortic valve is closed, and is determined by diastolic time and blood pressure in the root of the aorta. The nurse must understand three important points to appreciate the seriousness of tachydysrhythmias:
• Tachydysrhythmias shorten the diastolic time and therefore the coronary perfusion time (the amount of time available for blood to flow through the coronary arteries to the myocardium).
• Tachydysrhythmias initially increase cardiac output and blood pressure. However, a continued rise in heart rate decreases the ventricular filling time because of a shortened diastole, decreasing the stroke volume. Consequently, cardiac output and blood pressure will begin to decrease, reducing aortic pressure and therefore coronary perfusion pressure.
• Tachydysrhythmias increase the work of the heart, increasing myocardial oxygen demand.
The client with a tachydysrhythmia may have palpitations; chest discomfort; pressure or pain from myocardial ischemia or infarction; restlessness; anxiety; pale, cool skin; and syncope from hypotension. Tachydysrhythmias may also lead to heart failure. Presenting symptoms may include dyspnea, orthopnea, pulmonary crackles, distended neck veins, fatigue, and weakness.
■ BRADYDYSRHYTHMIAS
Bradydysrhythmias are characterized by a heart rate less than 60 beats/min. These rhythms can also have serious hemodynamic consequences. The nurse considers the following three points:
• Myocardial oxygen demand is reduced from the slow heart rate, which is beneficial.
• Coronary perfusion time is adequate because of a pro longed diastole, which is desirable.
• Coronary perfusion pressure may decrease if the heart rate is too slow to provide adequate cardiac output and blood pressure; this is a serious consequence.
Therefore the client may tolerate the bradydysrhythmia well if the blood pressure is adequate. If the blood pressure is not adequate, symptomatic bradydysrhythmias may lead to myocardial ischemia or infarction, dysrhythmias, hypotension, and heart failure.
PREMATURE COMPLEXES
Premature complexes are early complexes. They occur when a cardiac cell or cell group, other than the sinoatrial (SA) node, becomes irritable and fires an impulse before the next sinus impulse is generated. This abnormal focus is called an ectopic focus and may be generated by atrial, junctional, or ventricular tissue. Following the premature complex, there is a pause before the next normal complex, creating an irregularity in the rhythm.
The client with premature complexes may be unaware of them or may feel palpitations or a “skipping” of the heartbeat. If premature complexes, especially those that are ventricular in nature, become more frequent, the client may experience symptoms of decreased cardiac output.
■ REPETITIVE RHYTHMS
Premature complexes may occur repetitively in a rhythmic fashion:
• Bigeminy exists wheormal complexes and premature complexes occur alternately in a repetitive two-beat pattern, with a pause occurring after each premature complex so that complexes occur in pairs.
• Trigeminy is a repetitive three-beat pattern, usually occurring as two sequential normal complexes followed by a premature complex and a pause, with the same pattern repeating itself in triplets.
• Quadrigeminy is a repetitive four-beat pattern, usually occurring as three sequential normal complexes followed by a premature complex and a pause, with the same pattern repeating itself in a four-beat pattern. Such patterns may occur with atrial, junctional, or ventricular premature complexes. Clients may be unaware of the premature beats or may feel palpitations.
ESCAPE COMPLEXES AND RHYTHMS
Escape complexes or escape rhythms may occur when the SA node fails to discharge or is blocked or when a sinus impulse fails to depolarize the ventricles because of an atrioventricular (AV) nodal block. Escape complexes or rhythms serve as a secondary or escape pacemaker and are seen after a pause. Such impulses may originate from AV junctional or ventricular tissue. They cease when the SA node or the AV node regains the ability to functioormally. If there are pauses followed by escape beats or rhythms, clients may feel lightheaded, dizzy, or faint during the pause.
Classification of Dysrhythmias
Dysrhythmias are classified according to their site of origin. The sites include the SA node, atrial tissue, AV node, junctional tissue, and ventricular tissue. Dysrhythmias may be caused by a disturbance in impulse formation or by conduction delays or blocks. The incidence and the prevalence of dysrhythmias are not precisely known, because they usually result from an underlying condition, such as heart disease.
The incidence of dysrhythmias increases with age. A summary of the common dysrhythmias and their treatment is provided in Table 34-2.
SINUS DYSRHYTHMIAS
The sinus node is the pacemaker in all sinus dysrhythmias. Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers are distributed to the SA node. Innervation from these two systems is normally in balance to ensure a normal sinus rhythm (NSR). An imbalance increases or decreases the rate of SA node discharge either as a normal response to activity or physiologic changes or as a pathologic response to disease.
SINUS TACHYCARDIA
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Dominant sympathetic nervous system stimulation of the heart or vagal inhibition results in an increased rate of SA node discharge, which increases the heart rate (positive chronotropic effect).
When the rate of SA node discharge exceeds 100 beats/min, the rhythm is called sinus tachycardia. Sinus tachycardia, with heart rates of 200 to 220 beats/min, is normal in infants and children. The rate gradually decreases until age 10 years. From age 10 years to adulthood, the heart rate normally does not exceed 100 beats/min except in response to activity and then usually does not exceed 160 beats/min. Rarely, the heart rate may reach 180 beats/min. Sinus tachycardia initially enhances cardiac output and blood pressure. However, sustained increases in heart rate decrease coronary perfusion time and coronary perfusion pressure, while increasing myocardial oxygen demand.
ETIOLOGY. Increased sympathetic stimulation is a normal response to physical activity but may also be caused anxiety, pain, stress, fear, fever, anemia, hypoxemia, hyperthyroidism, and pulmonary embolism. Drugs such as catecholamines, atropine, caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, aminophylline, and thyroid medications may also increase the heart rate. In some cases, sinus tachycardia is a compensatory response to decreased cardiac output or blood pressure, as occurs in hypovolemia, shock, myocardial infarction, and heart failure.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The client may be asymptomatic except for the increased pulse rate. However, if the rhythm is not well tolerated, he or she may become symptomatic. The client is assessed for fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, orthopnea, neck vein distention, decreased oxygen saturation, and decreased blood pressure. The nurse also assesses for restlessness and anxiety from decreased cerebral perfusion and for decreased urine output from decreased renal perfusion. The adult client may experience anginal pain. The electrocardiographic (ECG) pattern may show T-wave inversion or ST-segment elevation or depression in response to myocardial ischemia.
INTERVENTIONS. The nurse and health care provider collaborate to identify the cause of sinus tachycardia and select the appropriate treatment. The goal is to decrease the heart rate to normal levels by treating the underlying cause. For example, if the client has angina, the nurse administers oxygen, helps the client to rest, and administers nitroglycerin or morphine as prescribed. Diuretics and inotropic agents may be given for heart failure. The nurse initiates intravascular volume replacement for hypovolemia, administers antipyretics and antibiotics to the client with fever and infection, or provides comfort measures and administers analgesics or opioids to the client with noncardiac pain, as ordered.
The nurse collaborates with the respiratory therapist when indicated to oxygenate and suction the client with hypoxemia from excessive airway secretions. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents may be prescribed for the client with inappropriate sympathetic nervous system stimulation. Emotional support and relevant teaching are important for the client and family.
SINUS BRADYCARDIA
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system, with excessive vagal stimulation to the heart, causes a decreased rate of sinus node discharge. This slows the heart rate and decreases the speed of conduction through the AV node and conduction system.
When the rate of sinus node discharge is less than 60 beats/min in adults or below the normal range in infants and children, the rhythm is called sinus bradycardia. Sinus bradycardia increases coronary perfusion time but may decrease coronary perfusion pressure. However, myocardial oxygen demand is decreased.
ETIOLOGY. Increased parasympathetic stimulation of the heart by the vagus nerve is a normal response to decreased physical activity. It also often occurs in well-conditioned athletes because the strong heart muscle is extremely efficient in providing an adequate stroke volume while not requiring a higher heart rate for a normal cardiac output. Excessive vagal stimulation may result from carotid sinus massage, vomiting, suctioning, Valsalva maneuvers (e.g., bearing down for a bowel movement or gagging), ocular pressure, or pain. Sinus bradycardia may also result from hypoxia, inferior wall myocardial infarction, and the administration of drugs such as beta-adrenergic blocking agents, calcium channel blockers, and digitalis.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The client may be asymptomatic, except for the decreased pulse rate. However, at times the rhythm may not be well tolerated. The nurse assesses the client for dizziness, weakness, syncope, confusion, hypotension, diaphoresis, shortness of breath, ventricular ectopy, and anginal pain. T-wave inversion or ST-segment elevation or depression may occur in response to myocardial ischemia.
INTERVENTIONS. If the client is symptomatic and the underlying cause cannot be determined, the treatment of choice is atropine administration, given as prescribed to increase the heart rate to approximately 60 beats/min. Oxygen should be applied. If the heart rate does not increase sufficiently, the nurse may apply an external pacemaker to increase the heart rate and notify the physician. However, if atropine administration succeeds in achieving an adequate heart rate but the client remains hypotensive, the nurse initiates intravascular volume replacement, as ordered, rather than administering another dose of atropine. Excessive atropine may induce tachycardia. If a medication is determined to be the cause, the nurse withholds the drug and notifies the physician for an order to discontinue the drug temporarily or permanently.
■ ATRIAL DYSRHYTHMIAS
With atrial dysrhythmias, the focus of impulse generation has shifted away from the sinus node to the atrial tissue, which now acts as an ectopic pacemaker, for one or more beats. This shift changes the axis (direction) of atrial depolarization, resulting in a P-wave shape that differs from that of P waves with a sinus node origin. The most common atrial dysrhythmias are premature atrial complexes, supraventricular tachycardia, atrial flutter, and atrial fibrillation.
PREMATURE ATRIAL COMPLEXES
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. A premature atrial complex (PAC), or atrial premature complex (APC), occurs when atrial tissue becomes irritable, and this ectopic focus fires an impulse before the next sinus impulse is due, thus usurping the sinus pacemaker.
The premature P wave from the atrial focus is early and has a shape different from that of the P wave generated from the sinus node. The premature P wave may not always be clearly visible, since it can be hidden in the preceding T wave. The T wave must be closely examined for any change in shape and compared with other T waves to reveal a hidden P wave. A PAC is usually followed by a pause.
ETIOLOGY. The causes of atrial irritability include stress; fatigue; anxiety; inflammation; infection; intake of caffeine, nicotine, or alcohol; and the administration of drugs such as catecholamines, sympathomimetics, amphetamines, digitalis, or anesthetic agents. PACs may also result from myocardial ischemia, hypermetaboric states, electrolyte imbalance, or atrial stretch, as may occur with congestive heart failure, valvular disease, and pulmonary hypertension with cor pulmonale.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The client is usually asymptomatic, except for possible heart palpitations, because PACs usually have no hemodynamic consequences.
INTERVENTIONS. No intervention is usually needed except to treat the cause, such as heart failure or valvular disease. If PACs occur frequently, they may signal the onset of more serious atrial tachydysrhythmias and therefore may warrant treatment. The nurse administers prescribed type IA antidysrhythmics, such as quinidine and procainamide (Pronestyl), or other drugs such as digitalis and propranolol (Inderal, Apo-Propranolol). Measures to reduce stress are also initiated, and the client is taught to avoid substances known to increase atrial irritability.
SUPRAVENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY.
Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) involves the rapid stimulation of atrial tissue at a rate of 100 to 280 beats/min, with a mean of 170 beats/min in adults and 200 to 300 beats/min in children. SVT is most often due to a re-entry mechanism in which one impulse circulates repeatedly throughout the atrial pathway, restimulating the atrial tissue at a rapid rate. The term paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) is used when the rhythm is intermittent, initiated suddenly by a prematurcomplex such as a PAC, and terminated suddenly with or without intervention.
During SVT the P waves have a shape different from that of sinus P waves. The P waves may not be visible, especially if there is a 1:1 conduction with rapid rates, because the P waves are obscured in the preceding T wave.
ETIOLOGY. The causes of SVT are the same as those for PACs. SVT may occur in healthy young people without evidence of heart disease, usually women under 40 years of age. The condition commonly occurs in clients with a pre-excitation syndrome, such as Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The clinical manifestations depend on the duration of the SVT and the rate of the ventricular response. In clients with a sustained rapid ventricular response, the nurse assesses for palpitations, weakness, fatigue, shortness of breath, nervousness, anxiety, hypotension, and syncope. Hemodynamic deterioration may occur in the client with cardiac disease, causing angina, heart failure, and shock. With a nonsustained or slower ventricular response, the client may be asymptomatic except for transient palpitations.
INTERVENTIONS. If SVT occurs in a healthy person and terminates spontaneously, no intervention is necessary other than eliminating identified causative factors. If it is recurrent, the client should be studied in the electrophysiology laboratory. The preferred treatment for recurrent SVT is radiofre-quency catheter ablation. In sustained SVT with a rapid ventricular response, the goals of treatment are to decrease the ventricular response, convert the dysrhythmia to a sinus rhythm, and treat the cause. Vagal stimulation (e.g., carotid massage) may be successful, but often only transiently, and must be performed only by a physician.
The nurse administers oxygen and prescribed antidysrhythmic drugs, which slow the ventricular rate by increasing the AV block (Chart 34-3). Some may also succeed in converting the dysrhythmia.
In the severely compromised client, the nurse may assist the physician in attempting atrial overdrive pacing or in delivering a synchronized electrical shock (cardioversion) to reestablish an organized rhythm and regain cardiac stability.
ATRIAL FLUTTER
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Atrial flutter is rapid atrial depolarization occurring at a rate of 250 to 350 times per minute. The most common rate is approximately 300 times per minute. An atrioventricular (AV) node blocks the number of impulses that reach the ventricles as a protective mechanism.
When untreated, atrial flutter results in a 2:1 block.
In general, when the ventricular rate is 150 beats/min, the nurse should suspect atrial flutter with 2:1 block and carefully scrutinize the electrocardiographic (ECG) baseline for evidence of atrial flutter waves
ETIOLOGY. Atrial flutter may be caused by rheumatic or ischemic heart disease, congestive heart failure, AV valve disease, pre-excitation syndromes, septal defects, pulmonary emboli, thyrotoxicosis, alcoholism, or pericarditis. The dysrhythmia commonly occurs after cardiac surgery.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The clinical manifestations depend on the rate of ventricular response. The nurse assesses the client for palpitations, weakness, fatigue, shortness of breath, nervousness, anxiety, syncope, angina, and evidence of heart failure and shock. Carotid sinus massage transiently decreases the ventricular rate to facilitate rhythm interpretation but can be performed only by the physician. The client with a normal ventricular rate is usually asymptomatic.
INTERVENTIONS. The treatment goals are the same as those for supraventricular tachycardia (SVT). The nurse administers oxygen and prescribed drugs such as ibutilide (Covert), amiodarone (Cordarone), diltiazem (Cardizem), and verapamil (Calan, Isoptin) to slow the rapid ventricular response. Quini-dine or procainamide (Pronestyl) must not be administered unless one of the above agents has slowed the ventricular response. Both drugs slow the atrial rate and may increase AV conduction, which could cause a 1:1 conduction with an increase in ventricular rate and hemodynamic deterioration.
The nurse helps the physician to attempt rapid atrial overdrive pacing or to achieve cardioversion if the client is hemodynamically compromised. If he or she fails to respond to these therapies, radiofrequency catheter ablation may be necessary
ATRIAL FIBRILLATION
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common dysrhythmia in the
Multiple, rapid impulses from many atrial foci, at a rate of 350 to 600 times per minute, depolarize the atria in a totally disorganized manner. The result is chaos, with no P waves, no atrial contractions, loss of the atrial kick, and an irregular ventricular response. The atria merely quiver in fibrillation (commonly called “A fib”), which may lead to the formation of mural thrombi (within the cardiac chambers) and potential embolic events.
ETIOLOGY. AF occurs most commonly in clients with systemic hypertension and is frequently seen in older adults (Resnick, 1999). It may also occur in clients with the following conditions:
• Myocardial infarction
• Rheumatic heart disease with mitral stenosis Atrial septal defect
• Congestive heart failure
• Cardiomyopathy
• Hyperthyroidism
• Pulmonary emboli
• Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome
• Congenital heart disease
• Chronic constrictive pericarditis
AF commonly occurs following cardiac surgery, in which case it is most often transient and usually responds well to treatment.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. AF may be intermittent or chronic. Symptoms depend on the ventricular rate. If the ventricular rate is rapid, the presenting symptoms may be as described for supraventricular tachycardia (SVT). Because of loss of the atrial kick, however, the client in uncontrolled AF is at greater risk for an inadequate cardiac output.
The nurse assesses the client for the presence of a pulse deficit, fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, distended neck veins, dizziness, decreased exercise tolerance, anxiety, syncope, palpitations, chest discomfort or pain, and hypotension.
The client is also at risk for pulmonary embolism. Thrombi may accumulate within the right atrium and be transported through the right ventricle to the lungs. The nurse should assess for shortness of breath, chest pain, hemoptysis, and a feeling of impending doom.
In addition, the client is at risk for systemic emboli, particularly an embolic stroke, which may cause severe neurologic impairment or death. Because approximately one third of clients with AF have thromboemboli, the nurse must be astute in assessing the client for evidence of embolic events. Changes in mentation, speech, sensory function, and motor function are particularly noted. The nurse also assesses pulses, urine output, back pain, and complaints of gastrointestinal (GI) disturbances. Any of these symptoms should be reported to the health care provider immediately. Clients with AF who have valvular disease are particularly at risk for thromboemboli.
INTERVENTIONS. Treatment is the same as for atrial flutter. In addition, the nurse may administer anticoagulants, such as heparin, enoxaparin (Lovenox), and sodium warfarin, as prescribed by the physician for clients considered to be at high risk for emboli. Before elective cardioversion, the nurse must initiate anticoagulation therapy for 4 to 5 weeks as prescribed to prevent a thromboembolic event if the rhythm is successfully converted. To assess for the presence of atrial clots, a contraindication for cardioversion in the compromised client, the physician may order a transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) before at tempting emergency cardioversion. AF of greater than 12 months duration is not likely to respond to attempts at conversion to sinus rhythm by drug therapies and may fail to respond to cardioversion.
A class III antiarrhythmic, dofetilide (Tikosyn) is indicated for the conversion of AF and atrial flutter to normal sinus rhythm (NSR). It also is indicated for the maintenance of NSR in clients with AF/atrial flutter of more than 1 weeks’ duration who have been converted to NSR. Because it can prolong the QT interval, causing Torsades de Pointes, the client must be hospitalized for telemetry monitoring for at least 3 days during the initiation of therapy. In addition to cardiac rhythm and QT interval monitoring, the dose of Tikosyn must be adjusted to creatine clearance levels.
Clients with recurring, symptomatic AF resistant to medical therapies may be treated with radiofrequency catheter ablation to the His bundle to interrupt all conduction between the atria and the ventricles. However, this requires implantation of a permanent ventricular pacemaker and does not stop the atria from fibrillating. The atrial kick is not restored, and clients remain at risk for embolic events.
Clients may benefit from the “maze” procedure, an open heart surgical technique. In this procedure the nurse first prepares the client for electrophysiologic mapping studies for confirmation of the diagnosis of AF. The nurse then prepares him or her for surgery. The surgeon places a maze of sutures in strategic places in the atrial myocardium to prevent electrical circuits from developing and perpetuating AF. Sinus impulses can then depolarize the atria before reaching the AV node and preserve the atrial kick.
■ JUNCTIONAL DYSRHYTHMIAS
Nodal cells in the atrioventricular (AV) junctional area can generate electrical impulses and are therefore secondary or latent pacemaker cells. They have a slower rate of discharge, usually 40 to 60 beats/min, and are usually suppressed. Occasionally, these cells do generate impulses as an escape pacemaker when the sinus node is excessively slow, or the cells may do so inappropriately as irritable rhythms. These rhythms are most commonly transient, and clients usually remain hemodynamically stable.
■ VENTRICULAR DYSRHYTHMIAS
The ventricles have the fewest number of nodal cells and are the slowest secondary pacemaker, generally being usurped by faster, higher pacemakers. However, irritable ventricular cells may generate electrical impulses and fire prematurely. Because the impulse originates in and depolarizes one ventricle first, then spreads to depolarize the other, the resultant QRS complex is wide, usually measuring greater than 0.12 second. The QRS complex is bizarre or odd in shape, looking different from the normal QRS complexes. The repolarization sequence is also different, so that the T wave is large and occurs in a direction opposite to the largest deflection of the QRS complex. The impulse most commonly is blocked in the AV node and cannot proceed further with retrograde conduction, so that the atria and the sinoatrial (SA) node are usually not affected by the ventricular impulse. The atrial rhythm typically remains regular, unless the underlying rhythm is sinus arrhythmia.
IDIOVENTRICULAR RHYTHM (VENTRICULAR ESCAPE RHYTHM)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. During idioventricular rhythm (ventricular escape rhythm), the ventricular nodal cells pace the ventricles. Because their inherent rate of firing is slow, the rate is usually less than 40 beats/min (Figure 34-13). If P waves are seen, they are independent of the QRS complexes and not related (AV dissociation).
ETIOLOGY. Idioventricular rhythm is seen as a rhythm in the dying heart, where downward displacement of the pacemaker has occurred. It is sometimes referred to as an “agonal” rhythm. Pulseless electrical activity (PEA) is characterized by no palpable pulse and therefore no perfusion, although electrical activity is displayed on the monitor. The most common causes of PEA are hypovolemia, hypoxia, and cardiac tamponade.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. Because idioventricular pacemakers are unstable, unreliable, and slow, the client is hypotensive and in shock or, most typically, is pulseless and therefore in cardiac arrest. The nurse assesses the client’s airway, breathing, circulation, level of consciousness, and pupillary response.
INTERVENTIONS. Usually, idioventricular rhythms require immediate resuscitation measures, unless there is a donot-resuscitate (DNR) order. The nurse initiates cardiopul-monary resuscitation (CPR) and summons assistance. The team may initiate advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) measures, including epinephrine administration, intravascular volume replacement, and other measures. The physician may attempt pacemaker therapy or discontinue resuscitation efforts.
PREMATURE VENTRICULAR COMPLEXES
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Premature ventricular complexes (PVCs), also called ventricular premature beats (VPBs), result from increased irritability of ventricular cells. PVCs are early ventricular complexes, followed by a pause. When multiple PVCs are present, the QRS complexes may be unifocal or uniform, meaning that they are of the same shape
or multifocal or multiform, meaning that they are of different shapes.
PVCs frequently occur in repetitive rhythms, such as bigeminy, trigeminy, and quadrigeminy. Two sequential PVCs are a pair, or couplet. Three or more successive PVCs are usually called nonsustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT)
ETIOLOGY. PVCs are common, and their frequency increases with age. PVCs may be insignificant or may occur with myocardial ischemia or infarction, congestive heart failure, chronic hypoxemia, chronic airway limitation (
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The client may be asymptomatic or may experience palpitations or chest discomfort caused by increased stroke volume of the normal beat after the pause. Peripheral pulses may be diminished or absent with the PVCs themselves because the decreased stroke volume of the premature beats may decrease peripheral perfusion. Since other rhythms also cause widened QRS complexes, it is essential that the nurse assess whether the premature complexes perfuse. This is done by palpating the carotid, brachial, or femoral arteries while observing the monitor for widened complexes, or auscultating for the apical heart sounds. With acute myocardial infarction, PVCs may be considered warning dysrhythmias, possibly heralding the onset of ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF). For a client with chest discomfort or pain, the nurse reports to the physician whether PVCs increase in frequency, are multiform, are R-on-T phenomena, or occur in runs of VT.
INTERVENTIONS. If there is no underlying heart disease, PVCs are not usually treated other than by eliminating any contributing cause (e.g., caffeine, stress). With acute myocardial ischemia or infarction, the nurse treats significant PVCs by administering oxygen and lidocaine as prescribed. The nurse may administer other drugs as ordered, including pro-cainamide (Pronestyl), bretylium (Bretylol, Bretylate), magnesium sulfate, propranolol (Inderal, Apo-Propranolol), quinidine, and mexiletine (Mexitil). Potassium is administered as ordered for replacement therapy if hy-pokalemia is the cause.
VENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY.
Ventricular tachycardia (VT), sometimes referred to as “V tach,” occurs with repetitive firing of an irritable ventricular ectopic focus, usually at a rate of 140 to 180 beats/min or more. VT may result from increased automaticity or a re-entry mechanism. VT may be intermittent, as in three or more self-limiting beats (nonsustained VT), or sustained, lasting longer than 15 to 30 seconds. The sinus node continues to discharge independently, depolarizing the atria but not the ventricles (atrioven-tricular [AV] dissociation), although P waves are seldom seen in sustained VT.
ETIOLOGY. VT may occur in clients with ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, valvular heart disease, heart failure, drug toxicity, hypotension, or ventricular aneurysm. In clients who go into cardiac arrest, VT is commonly the initial rhythm before deterioration into ventricular fibrillation (VF) as the terminal rhythm. VT is not common in infants and children unless they have cardiac disease.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. Clinical manifestations of sustained VT partially depend on the ventricular rate. Slower rates are better tolerated. Clients may be hemodynamically compromised if the cardiac output decreases because of the shortened ventricular filling time and loss of the atrial kick. In some clients, VT causes cardiac arrest. The nurse assesses the client’s airway, breathing, circulation, level of consciousness, and pupillary response.
INTERVENTIONS. For the stable client with sustained VT, the nurse administers oxygen and confirms the rhythm via a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Amiodarone, procainamide, or magnesium sulfate may be given. Lidocaine, a long-established antidysrhythmic, has not been recommended for prophylaxis of ventricular dysrhythmias in acute myocardial infarction. Current advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) guidelines state that elective cardioversion is highly recommended for stable VT. Bretylium has been dropped from ACLS algorithms because of a severe shortage of the world’s natural sources of bretylium.
The physician may prescribe an oral antidysrhythmic agent, such as procainamide (Procan SR), mexiletine (Mexitil), or sotalol (Betapace, Sotacor).
For the client with unstable VT, the nurse assists the physician in attempting emergency cardioversion followed by oxygen and antidysrhythmic therapy. The nurse may instruct the client to perform cough cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if prescribed, telling him or her to inhale deeply and cough hard every 1 to 3 seconds. Cough CPR is sometimes successful in either terminating the VT or at least briefly sustaining cerebral and coronary perfusion until other measures can be initiated. The physician may attempt rapid atrial or ventricular overdrive pacing if the VT is related to a significant bradydysrhythmia.
A precordial thump is sometimes successful in terminating VT, at least transiently. The physician or the ACLS-qualified nurse may administer a precordial thump to a client with unstable VT only if a defibrillator and pacemaker are immediately available.
With pulseless VT, the physician or ACLS-qualified nurse or other health care provider must immediately defibrillate the client or initiate CPR and defibrillate as soon as possible. A precordial thump may be administered initially, although it is frequently not successful in terminating VT. If the client remains pulseless, the nurse or other health care provider must resume CPR and full resuscitative measures following defibrillation. This includes airway management and administration of oxygen, epinephrine, and antidysrhythmic therapy with amiodarone, magnesium sulfate, and procainamide.
If the rhythm has been successfully converted, attention is given to treating reversible causes of VT, such as myocardial ischemia, hypokalemia, and hypomagnesemia. The nurse ensures that oxygen therapy and antidysrhythmic agent administration are continued, and the client is closely monitored for premature ventricular complexes (PVCs) and the recurrence of VT. The client with recurrent, medically refractory VT should be studied in the electrophysiology laboratory and may benefit from radiofrequency catheter ablation. Some forms of VT may require surgical intervention, such as coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery, implantation of a cardioverter/defibrillator, aneurysmectomy, encircling endocardial ventriculotomy, cryosurgery, or endocardial resection.
VENTRICULAR FIBRILLATION
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Ventricular fibrillation (VF), sometimes called “V fib,” is the result of electrical chaos in the ventricles. Impulses from many irritable foci fire in a totally disorganized manner so that ventricular contraction cannot occur. There are no recognizable deflections. Instead, there are irregular undulations of varying amplitudes, from coarse to fine.
The ventricles merely quiver, consuming a tremendous amount of oxygen. There is no cardiac output and therefore no cerebral, myocardial, or systemic perfusion. This rhythm is rapidly fatal if not successfully terminated within 3 to 5 minutes.
ETIOLOGY. VF may be the first manifestation of coronary artery disease (CAD). Clients with myocardial infarction are at great risk for VF. VF may also occur in clients with myocardial ischemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hemorrhage, antidysrhythmic therapy, rapid supraventricular tachydysrhythmias, shock, asynchronous pacing with competition, or severe metabolic disease. VF also occurs following surgery or trauma.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. On initiation of VF, the client becomes faint, immediately loses consciousness, and becomes pulseless and apneic. There is no blood pressure, and heart sounds are absent. Respiratory and metabolic acidosis develop. Seizures may occur. Within minutes, the pupils become fixed and dilated, and the skin becomes cold and mottled. Death ensues without prompt restoration of an organized rhythm and cardiac output.
INTERVENTIONS. The goals of treatment are to terminate VF promptly and convert it to an organized rhythm. The physician or the ACLS nurse or other health care provider must immediately defibrillate the client to accomplish this goal. This is the management priority, and the ACLS algorithm for VF must be followed. If a defibrillator is not readily available, a precordial thump may be delivered. CPR must be continued until the defibrillator arrives.
If the VF does not terminate after three rapid successive shocks of increasing energy, the nurse and resuscitation team resume CPR and provide airway management. They also administer oxygen and antidysrhythmic therapy with epineph-rine, amiodarone, procainamide (Pronestyl), lidocaine, and magnesium sulfate, along with attempting defibrillation frequently. If VF is successfully converted to an organized rhythm, the nurse continues supportive therapy and assists the physician in treating potential causes of VF and preventing its recurrence.
VENTRICULAR ASYSTOLE
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Ventricular asystole, sometimes called ventricular standstill, is the complete absence of any ventricular rhythm. There are no electrical impulses in the ventricles and therefore no ventricular depolarization, no QRS complex, no contraction, no cardiac output, and no pulse, respirations, or blood pressure. The client is in full cardiac arrest. The sinoatrial (SA) node, in some cases, may continue to fire and depolarize the atria, with only P waves seen on the electrocardiogram (ECG), but the sinus impulses do not conduct to the ventricles, and QRS complexes remain absent.
In most cases, the entire conduction system is electrically silent, with no P waves seen on the ECG. There is only a mildly undulating line on the ECG. Fine ventricular fibrillation (VF) may resemble asystole in some leads. Because treatment of these two rhythms differs significantly, the nurse must assess two ECG leads for an accurate rhythm interpretation.
ETIOLOGY. Ventricular asystole usually results from my-ocardial hypoxia, which may be a consequence of advanced heart failure. It may also be caused by severe hyperkalemia and acidosis. If P waves are seen, asystole is likely because of severe ventricular conduction blocks. Rarely, excessive vagal stimulation may cause asystole.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. Clients are in full cardiac arrest with loss of consciousness and absence of pulse, respirations, and blood pressure. Ventricular asystole is often unresponsive to resuscitation measures and fatal.
INTERVENTIONS. The goal of treatment is to restore cardiac electrical activity. The nurse or other health care provider initiates CPR immediately and summons assistance. Another ECG lead is assessed to ensure that the rhythm is asystole and not fine VF, which warrants immediate defibrillation. When in doubt, the client should be defibrillated. The nurse and resuscitation team manage the airway and administer oxygen, epi-nephrine, and atropine. The nurse assists the physician with the initiation of noninvasive pacing or invasive transvenous or epicardial pacing, although pacemaker therapy is generally not effective. An isoproterenol infusion may also be tried. The prognosis for clients with asystole is poor.
ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCKS
Atrioventricular (AV) blocks exist when supraventricular impulses are excessively delayed or totally blocked in the AV node or intraventricular conduction system. Conduction may be transiently or permanently abnormal for a number of reasons. The SA node continues to functioormally, and atrial depolarizations and P waves occur regularly. Because of the conduction dysfunction, ventricular depolarizations and QRS complexes are either delayed or blocked.
There are different degrees of heart blocks, as follows:
• In first-degree AV block, all sinus impulses eventually reach the ventricles.
• In second-degree heart block, some sinus impulses reach the ventricles, but others do not because they are blocked.
• In third-degree heart block (complete heart block), none of the sinus impulses reach the ventricles. The ventricles, therefore, are depolarized by a second, independent pacemaker. AV blocks are differentiated by their PR intervals.
FIRST-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. First-degree AV block is actually a conduction delay rather than a block. AV node conduction is slow, prolonging the PR interval to greater than 0.20 second. However, all sinus impulses eventually reach the ventricles. The underlying rhythm must still be identified (e.g., sinus rhythm with first-degree AV block).
ETIOLOGY. First-degree AV block may be due to AV nodal ischemia from occlusion of the right coronary artery, as with an inferior or posterior myocardial infarction. It may also result from hypokalemia or hyperkalemia; the administration of digitalis, beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, or narcotics; excessive vagal stimulation; or degenerative AV nodal disease. It may also occur following cardiac surgery as a result of edema in the AV nodal area and usually resolves without treatment.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. First-degree AV block has no hemodynamic consequences and produces no symptoms. Any symptoms are the result of the underlying rhythm (e.g., sinus bradycardia). First-degree AV block may be insignificant and transient or may progress to more severe AV blocks.
INTERVENTIONS. In the stable client, no treatment is needed. If the PR interval is particularly long or is getting progressively longer, the nurse must notify the physician. If the first-degree AV block is due to drug therapy, the nurse must withhold the offending drug and notify the physician. When first-degree AV block is associated with symptomatic bradycardia, oxygen and atropine are administered as prescribed to accelerate AV conduction.
SECOND-DEGREE ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK TYPE I (ATRIOVENTRICULAR WENCKEBACH OR MOBITZ TYPE I)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. In second-degree AV block type I, each successive sinus impulse takes a little longer to conduct through the impaired AV node, until one impulse is completely blocked and fails to depolarize the ventricles. This block results in a nonconducted or dropped beat (missing QRS complex). There is progressive prolongation of the PR interval, followed by a dropped beat and a pause (a characteristic feature of this rhythm). The pause allows sufficient time for the AV node to recover so that the next beat is conducted with a shorter PR interval and the Wenckebach sequence is repeated. Although the atrial rhythm is usually regular, the ventricular rhythm is irregular, with an appearance of grouped beats separated by pauses. Group size (conduction ratios) may be constant or may vary. Because of the dropped QRS complex, each group normally has one more P wave than QRS complexes.
ETIOLOGY. The causes of AV Wenckebach block are the same as for first-degree AV block. It is often a transient rhythm and may revert to first-degree AV block or even a normal sinus rhythm (NSR). However, Mobitz I may progress to third-degree or complete heart block. Second-degree AVblock type I is also seen with rheumatic fever and digitalis administration.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. The client is usually asymptomatic if the frequency of dropped beats and the overall ventricular rate do not decrease the cardiac output. If the ventricular rate is too slow, decreasing the cardiac output, the client will have symptoms of a symptomatic bradydysrhythmia. This rhythm is usually transient and terminates spontaneously.
INTERVENTIONS. No intervention is required in the stable client, because this rhythm rarely progresses to a more severe block. In the symptomatic client, the nurse administers oxygen and atropine as prescribed. If atropine is not successful in speeding AV nodal conduction time and increasing the heart rate, the nurse initiates pacemaker therapy as ordered and notifies the physician.
SECOND-DEGREE HEART BLOCK TYPE II (MOBITZ TYPE II)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. In Mobitz type II block, the block is actually infranodal, occurring below the His bundle. It involves a constant block in one of the bundle branches, resulting in a wide QRS complex in conducted beats and an intermittent block in the other bundle branch, resulting in dropped beats because both bundles are blocked (P waves are not followed by a QRS complex). Because the block is not in the AV node, sinus impulses that conduct to the ventricles always do so with a constant PR interval. Impulses may be blocked randomly, making the ventricular rhythm irregular. Alternatively, the impulses may be blocked at regular intervals, such as in 2:1 block, in which case the ventricular rhythm is regular.
ETIOLOGY. Second-degree AV block type II is less common than type I. It may occur in the adult with an anterior wall myocardial infarction because of severe ischemic damage to the conduction system. It may also be caused by rheumatic heart disease or degenerative disease of the conduction system. It is a serious block that may progress suddenly to a third-degree AV block (complete heart block) and an ominous prognosis.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. Symptoms depend on the frequency of dropped beats and the overall ventricular rate. If the cardiac output is inadequate, the client presents with a symptomatic bradydysrhythmia.
INTERVENTIONS. In the asymptomatic client, the nurse may assist the physician in initiating prophylactic pacing to avert the threat of sudden third-degree AV block. If slow ventricular rates are present, the nurse administers oxygen and atropine as prescribed. Atropine is usually ineffective because it does not reverse the infranodal block. An isoproterenol (Isuprel) infusion may be administered with caution but may be dangerous in adults with ischemic heart disease. Noninvasive (external) or invasive pacing is preferred. A permanent pacemaker may be required with recurrent Mobitz type II block.
THIRD-DEGREE HEART BLOCK (COMPLETE HEART BLOCK)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. In third-degree heart block, none of the sinus impulses conduct to the ventricles. The sinoatrial (SA) node is usually the pacemaker for the atria, producing P waves at a normal or even accelerated rate. A separate, independent pacemaker paces the ventricles. Thus AV dissociation exists. If the block is in the AV node, a junctional escape focus paces the ventricles, producing normal QRS complexes at a rate of 40 to 60 beats/min.
If the block is below the His bundle (infranodal), a ventricular escape focus paces the ventricles, producing wide QRS complexes at a rate usually less than 40 beats/min. In either case, the atrial and ventricular rhythms are usually regular but independent of each other, with more P waves than QRS complexes.
Because the P waves and the QRS complexes are totally independent and bear no relationship to each other, the PR interval is not constant, which is the most characteristic feature of this rhythm. The ventricular escape pacemaker is the least dependable pacemaker. It may abruptly fail, causing ventricular asystole, or it may predispose to irritability in the form of premature ventricular complexes (PVCs), ventricular tachycardia (VT), or ventricular fibrillation (VF).
ETIOLOGY. Third-degree heart block in the adult may occur from ischemic injury with coronary artery disease (CAD) or myocardial infarction, degenerative disease of the conduction system, hypoxia, or calcific aortic stenosis. Third-degree heart block may occur with congenital heart disease, the effects of drugs or electrolyte disturbances, or cardiac surgery.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. Clinical manifestations depend on the overall ventricular rate and cardiac output. Transient third-degree heart block may be well tolerated, particularly when the block is in the AV node. If the block is infranodal, it may have serious hemodynamic consequences. If cerebral perfusion is inadequate, clients may be confused and lightheaded or may experience episodes of syncope with or without seizures (Stokes-Adams attacks). Inadequate cardiac output may cause myocardial ischemia or infarction, heart failure, or hypotension. Third-degree heart block may predispose to cardiac arrest, causing VT, VF, or asystole. Therefore it is regarded as a dangerous rhythm.
INTERVENTIONS. Third-degree AV block with a junctional escape pacemaker is often transient and well tolerated. If the client is symptomatic, the nurse administers oxygen and atropine as prescribed. Clients with third-degree heart block with a ventricular escape pacemaker are frequently symptomatic. The nurse administers oxygen and assists the physician in initiating pacing to avert the threat of cardiac arrest. Atropine is usually not successful in infranodal blocks with wide QRS complexes. Cautious use of isoproterenol (Isuprel) infusions may be necessary as a temporary measure while awaiting pacemaker therapy but is dangerous in clients with acute myocardial infarction. Implantation of a permanent pacemaker may be required for clients with recurrent third-degree infranodal block.
BUNDLE BRANCH BLOCKS
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. Bundle branch block is a conduction delay or block within one of the two main bundle branches below the bifurcation of the His bundle. When one bundle branch is blocked, the supraventricular impulse is able to descend only down the unblocked bundle branch and to depolarize that ventricle. The other ventricle is depolarized afterward, as the wave of depolarization from the first ventricle proceeds from cell to cell to the other ventricle. Such slow depolarization prolongs the QRS duration to 0.12 second or longer. The underlying rhythm is usually sinus in origin (e.g., sinus rhythm with bundle branch block).
ETIOLOGY. Bundle branch block may be a temporary or permanent conduction disorder. Right or left bundle branch blocks may occasionally be seen in clients with normal hearts. More commonly, they are seen in clients with cardiovascular disease, such as congenital heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, ventricular hypertrophy, cardiomyopathy, severe aortic stenosis, chronic degenerative disease of the conduction system, or fibrotic scarring of the conduction system. Transient bundle branch block may be seen with acute conditions such as coronary insufficiency, myocardial infarction, or heart failure; during right-sided heart catheterization; or with rapid supraventricular rates.
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS. There are no clinical manifestations specifically related to bundle branch block. The nurse must notify the physician when a new bundle branch block develops, especially in the client with an acute myocardial infarction. The conduction disorder may deteriorate to a more significant block requiring pacemaker therapy.
INTERVENTIONS. No interventions are specifically related to bundle branch block. The client is assessed during alterations in heart rate for symptoms of hemodynamic compromise, which are reported to the physician. The nurse ensures that the client is resting and has adequate ventilation and oxygenation
■ COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT
COMMON NURSING DIAGNOSES AND COLLABORATIVE PROBLEMS
The following are the most commoursing diagnoses for clients with dysrhythmias:
1.Decreased Cardiac Output related to electrical and mechanical dysfunction
2.Ineffective Tissue Perfusion related to decreased cardiac output
ADDITIONAL NURSING DIAGNOSES AND COLLABORATIVE PROBLEMS
In addition to the commoursing diagnoses, clients with dysrhythmias may have one or more of the following:
• Impaired Gas Exchange related to altered oxygen supply
• Ineffective Coping related to fear of death
• Activity Intolerance related to fatigue from decreased oxygen supply
• Self-Care Deficit related to activity intolerance
An additional collaborative problem is Potential for Pulmonary Edema.
Planning and Implementation
DECREASED CARDIAC OUTPUT AND INEFFECTIVE TISSUE PERFUSION
PLANNING: EXPECTED OUTCOMES. The client with dysrhythmias is expected to demonstrate satisfactory cardiac output as evidenced by the following:
• Normal, regular heart rate
• No adventitious breath sounds
• Cognitive status in expected range (IER)
• Baseline skin color and temperature
• Blood pressure IER
In addition, the client is expected to perform activities of daily living without dyspnea or excessive fatigue.
INTERVENTIONS. The nurse’s major role is to assess for complications and monitor the client for response to treatment. Interventions are specific to the type of dysrhythmia, the cause, the effect it has on cardiac output, and the risk it presents to the client.
CARDIAC CARE. The nurse or assistive nursing personnel monitors the client’s electrocardiographic (ECG) rhythm and/or assesses the client for signs and symptoms associated with dysrhythmias, such as abnormal pulse rate and rhythm, palpitations, chest pain, syncope, decreased blood pressure, and dyspnea.
The nurse may assess the client’s apical and radial pulses for a full minute for any irregularity, which may occur with premature beats, escape beats, atrial fibrillation (AF), or second-degree heart blocks. If the apical pulse rate differs from the radial pulse rate, a pulse deficit exists and suggests that not all beats are perfusing.
In a critical care setting, if the client has a pulmonary artery catheter and an arterial line, his or her hemodynamic profile is reviewed to determine the physiologic effects of the dysrhythmia. The nurse must also assess the psychosocial impact of dysrhythmias on clients and families and the effectiveness of their coping mechanisms.
Assessment of the client’s past and current history is essential because dysrhythmias are associated with both acute and chronic disorders and also with medical and surgical therapies. The nurse should also review the interpretation of the client’s 12-lead ECG and other ECG diagnostic tests, such as the Holter monitor, event monitor, or signal-averaged ECG.
NONSURGICAL MANAGEMENT. Nonsurgical management of dysrhythmias includes drug therapy, vagal maneuvers, temporary pacing, cardioversion, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), defibrillation, and catheter ablation.
DRUG THERAPY. Pharmacologic therapy administered for the control of dysrhythmias often includes drugs from one or more classes of antidysrhythmic agents. The Vaughn-Williams classification is commonly used to classify drugs according to their effects on the action potential of cardiac cells. Other drugs also have antidysrhythmic effects but do not fit the Vaughn-Williams classification.
Vaughn-Williams Classification. Class I antidysrhyth-mics are membrane-stabilizing agents, stabilizing phase 4 to decrease automaticity. There are three subclassifications in this group.
Class II antidysrhythmics control dysrhythmias associated with excessive beta-adrenergic stimulation by competing for receptor sites and thereby decreasing heart rate and conduction velocity. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as pro-pranolol (Inderal, Apo-Propranolol) and esmolol hydrochloride (Brevibloc), are class II drugs. They are used to treat or to prevent supraventricular and ventricular premature beats and tachydysrhythmias. Sotalol hydrochloride (Beta-pace, Sotacor) is an antidysrhythmic agent with both non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic blocking effects (class II) and action potential duration prolongation properties (class III). It is an oral agent recommended for the treatment of documented ventricular dysrhythmias, such as VT, that are life threatening.
Class III antidysrhythmics lengthen the absolute refractory period and prolong repolarization and the action potential duration of ischemic cells. They decrease the disparity with normal cells to prevent a re-entry response. Class III drugs include bretylium (Bretylol, Bretylate^O, amiodarone (Cordarone), and ibutilide (Covert) and are used to treat or prevent ventricular premature beats, VT, and VF.
Class IV antidysrhythmics impede the flow of calcium into the cell during depolarization, thereby depressing automaticity of the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes, decreasing the heart rate, and prolonging the AV nodal refractory period and conduction. Calcium channel blockers, such as verapamil hydrochloride (Calan, Isoptin^O and diltiazem hydrochloride (Cardizem), are class IV drugs. They are used to treat supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), atrial flutter, and atrial fibrillation (AF) to slow down the ventricular response.
Other Antidysrhythmic Drugs. Other drugs, such as digoxin, atropine, adenosine, and magnesium sulfate, are frequently used to treat dysrhythmias. Digoxin (Lanoxin, Novodigoxin) increases vagal tone, slowing AV nodal conduction. It is useful in treating supraventricular tachydysrhythmias, particularly chronic AF, by controlling the rate of ventricular response. Atropine is a parasympatholytic or vagolytic agent. It is used to treat vagally induced symptomatic bradydysrhythmias. Adenosine is an endogenous nucle-oside that slows AV nodal conduction to interrupt re-entry pathways. It is effective in terminating paroxysmal SVT, a reentrant tachydysrhythmia. Magnesium sulfate is an electrolyte administered to treat refractory VT or VF because these clients may be hypomagnesemic, with increased ventricular irritability.
Emergency Cardiac Drugs. In addition to antidysrhythmics, several other drugs are used during cardiac arrest. Epinephrine (Adrenalin) is a first-line agent in all cardiac arrests. It is given predominantly for its alpha-adrenergic effects to increase vasomotor tone for myocardial and cerebral perfusion. Its beta-adrenergic effects may stimulate the heart and increase myocardial contractility to improve cardiac output. Dopamine hydrochloride (Intropin) isgenerally used for its beta-adrenergic effects after cardiac arrest but may be used for its alpha-adrenergic effects during resuscitation. Dobutamine hydrochloride (Dobutrex) is a beta-adrenergic agent used to improve myocardial contractility and increase cardiac output.
Norepinephrine (Levophed) or phenylephrine hydrochloride (Neo-Synephrine) may be used for its alpha-adrenergic effects to increase vasomotor tone and increase perfusion pressure. Sodium bicarbonate is administered during cardiac arrest for clients who are hyperkalemic. It may also be used, if necessary, to treat a bicarbonate metabolic acidosis, as occurs in diabetic ketoacidosis or tricyclic antidepressant overdose. Iso-proterenol (Isuprel) is indicated to increase the heart rate in heart transplant clients, but pacing is preferred. Calcium chloride, which increases myocardial contractility, is also rarely indicated. It is reserved for clients with hyperkalemia, hypocal-cemia, or calcium channel blocker toxicity because it may cause cell damage and cerebrovascular vasospasm.
VAGAL MANEUVERS. Vagal maneuvers induce vagal stimulation of the cardiac conduction system, specifically the SA and AV nodes. Vagal maneuvers are used to terminate supraventricular tachydysrhythmias. They include carotid sinus massage and Valsalva maneuvers.
Carotid Sinus Massage. The physician massages over one carotid artery for a few seconds, observing for a change in cardiac rhythm. Massaging the carotid sinus causes vagal stimulation, slowing SA nodal and AV nodal conduction. The nurse prepares the client for this procedure, instructs him or her to turn the head slightly away from the side to be massaged, and observes the cardiac monitor for a change in rhythm. An electrocardiographic (ECG) rhythm strip is recorded before, during, and after the procedure. The nurse then assesses vital signs and the level of consciousness. Complications include bradydysrhythmias, asystole, VF, and cerebral damage. Because of these risks, carotid massage is not commonly performed. A defibrillator and resuscitative equipment must be immediately available during the procedure.
Valsalva Maneuvers. To stimulate a vagal reflex, the health care provider instructs the client to bear down as if straining to have a bowel movement or induces the gag reflex. The nurse prepares the client for the procedure; assesses the heart rate, heart rhythm, and blood pressure; observes the cardiac monitor; and records an ECG rhythm strip before, during, and after the procedure to determine the effect of therapy. If gagging is induced and the client vomits, the nurse provides an emesis basin and oral hygiene and takes measures to prevent aspiration.
Unintended vagal stimulation may sometimes occur, and the nurse must be cautious when performing procedures that may inadvertently cause vagal stimulation. For example, tracheal suctioning, enema administration, and rectal temperature checks can stimulate the vagus nerve and decrease the heart rate inappropriately. The nurse administers stool softeners as prescribed. The client is instructed not to strain during bowel movements and to avoid constipation through proper diet and exercise. He or she is also told to avoid inducing gagging during oral hygiene, which triggers a vagal response. The heart rate and rhythm of a client who is vomiting is monitored because a vagal reflex can result. Some clients experience a vagal response when raising their arms above their head and must be instructed to avoid this movement
TEMPORARY PACING. Temporary pacing is a nonsurgical intervention that provides a timed electrical stimulus to the heart when either the impulse initiation or the intrinsic conduction system of the heart is defective. The electrical stimulus then spreads throughout the heart to depolarize the cells, which should be followed by contraction and cardiac output. Electrical stimuli may be delivered to the right atrium or right ventricle (single-chamber pacemakers) or to both (dual-chamber pacemakers).
When a pacing stimulus is delivered to the heart, a spike (or pacemaker artifact) is seen on the monitor or ECG strip. The spike should be followed by evidence of depolarization (i.e., a P wave, indicating atrial depolarization, or a QRS complex, indicating ventricular depolarization). This pattern is referred to as capture, indicating that the pacemaker successfully depolarized, or captured, the chamber.
Temporary pacing is generally initiated in clients with symptomatic, atropine-refractory bradydysrhythmias, particularly second-degree heart block type II and third-degree heart block, or in clients with asystole. Temporary pacing may also be initiated prophylactically in hemodynamically stable clients with left bundle branch block in certain situations, such as insertion of a pulmonary artery catheter.
A different type of pacing may be used to terminate symptomatic tachydysrhythmias. Occasionally, atrial overdrive pacing is attempted to terminate atrial tachydysrhythmias, such as atrial flutter or atrial fibrillation (AF). Overdrive pacing is accomplished by rapidly pacing the atrium to capture the heart and control depolarization, followed by no pacing, in the hope that the sinus node will regain control of the heart. Ventricular overdrive pacing may be done to terminate ventricular tachydysrhythmias in much the same way. Overdrive pacing is usually performed by the physician or the physician’s assistant. The nurse must have emergency equipment available in case the client becomes more unstable or goes into cardiac arrest.
Modes of Pacing. There are two basic modes of pacing: synchronous (demand) pacing and asynchronous (fixed-rate) pacing.
Synchronous (Demand) Pacing. Temporary pacing is most commonly done in the demand mode. The pacemaker’s sensitivity is set to sense the client’s own beats. When the client’s intrinsic rate is above the rate set on the pulse generator, the pacemaker is inhibited from firing. When the client’s rate is below that set on the generator, the pacemaker fires electrical impulses to stimulate depolarization
.
Asynchronous (Fixed-Rate) Pacing. The asynchronous mode is used when the client is asystolic or profoundly bradycardic, as may occur after open heart surgery. When the pulse generator is set in an asynchronous mode, it does not sense any intrinsic beats of the client. The pacemaker continues to fire at a fixed rate as set on the generator, regardless of the intrinsic rhythm. This continued firing is not a problem as long as the client remains asystolic or has a rate slower than the pacemaker rate, because all beats come from the pacemaker and there is no competition from the client’s beats.
However, if the client’s rate increases and equals or exceeds the pacemaker rate, competition (undersensing) is noted. The danger is that a pacemaker stimulus may reach the heart during the vulnerable period of repolarization (R-on-T phenomenon, with the pacer spike falling on the T wave) and possibly induce ventricular fibrillation (VF). The nurse must observe for pacemaker competition and set the pacemaker to a synchronous mode to avert potential problems.
Universal Pacemaker Code. In 1974 the Intersociety Commission for Heart Disease established a three-position pacemaker code (ICHD code) to standardize the description of pacemaker systems.
This code is used universally and makes it easier to quickly identify the primary functions of the pacemaker. AAI denotes an atrial demand pacemaker. AOO denotes an asynchronous atrial pacemaker. VVI denotes a ventricular demand pacemaker. VOO refers to an asynchronous ventricular pacemaker. DVI denotes a demand AV sequential pacemaker that can pace both chambers but senses only the ventricular chamber. DOO indicates an asynchronous dual-chamber pacemaker. DDD denotes a demand dual-chamber pacemaker that paces and senses both chambers and has a dual mode of response.
The code was expanded to five positions for standardization of multiprogrammable pacemakers and tachydysrhythmia functions, incorporating the original three-position code. This code was designed by the North American Society for Pacing and Eiectrophysioiogy (NASPE) and the British Pacing and Eiectrophysioiogy Group (BPEG). The code is referred to as the NASPE/BPEG generic (or NBG) code (Table 34-3).
There are two basic types of temporary pacing: noninvasive (external) temporary pacing and invasive temporary pacing.
Noninvasive Temporary Pacing. Noninvasive temporary pacing (NTP) is accomplished through the application of two large patch electrodes. The electrodes are attached to an external pulse generator, which can operate on alternating current (AC) or battery power. The generator emits electrical pulses, which are transmitted through the cutaneous patches and then transcutaneously to stimulate ventricular depolarization when the client’s heart rate is slower than the rate set on the pacemaker.
Electrical currents of 60 milliamperes (mA) or more are usually required to achieve ventricular depolarization. The current is applied for 20 to 40 milliseconds (msec), producing a pacing stimulus, or spike, that occupies 0.02 to 0.04 second on the electrocardiographic (ECG) paper.
NTP is used as an emergency measure to provide demand ventricular pacing in a profoundly bradycardic or asystolic client until invasive pacing can be instituted or the client’s intrinsic rate returns to normal. It may be used prophylactically when performing procedures or transporting clients at risk for bradydysrhythmias. Prophylactic use of NTP may be costly because of the high cost of the external electrodes, and its use should therefore be carefully considered.
Procedure. The nurse explains NTP to the client and prepares the equipment. The skin is washed with soap and water To prevent skin abrasion, the skin must not be shaved. The nurse or assistive nursing personnel should not rub the skin or apply alcohol or tinctures on the skin, because electrical current flows from the patches through the skin and causes discomfort. The nurse then applies the large posterior electrode on the client’s back, between the spine and the left scapula, behind the heart. The electrode should not be placed higher over bone because bone is a poor conductor of electrical current. The anterior electrode is then applied on the chest, between the V2 and the V5 positions, over the heart. The electrode cannot be placed over female breast tissue. The breast tissue is displaced to position the electrode underneath the breast.
The nurse sets the pacing rate as ordered and establishes the stimulation threshold, the lowest current that achieves capture with each pacing spike followed by a QRS complex. The QRS complex is wide because one ventricle depolarizes first, followed by the other. The electrical current is then set 10% above threshold levels.
The nurse palpates the right radial or carotid pulse and assesses the blood pressure using the client’s right arm, ensuring that each paced beat is perfused. Vital signs are not taken on the left side of the body because they may not be accurate, particularly if a high milliamperage is used.
Complications. Three complications may arise with NTP. The first is discomfort from cutaneous and muscle stimulation and skin irritation, as well as diaphoresis from the patch electrodes. The nurse ensures that the electrodes are in good contact with the skin and in the best location to achieve the lowest threshold for consistent capture. Analgesics or sedatives are given as prescribed to provide comfort.
The second problem is loss of capture, which occurs when the pacing spike is not followed by a QRS complex capture is regained; however, higher currents cause more discomfort.
The third problem is inappropriate pacing, which occurs when the pacemaker does not sense the client’s intrinsic QRS complex and therefore fires impulses at its preset rate, competing with the client’s rhythm. The nurse must assess electrode contact and the effect of the client’s position on pacemaker function. The client may need to avoid lying on the left side. If diaphoresis has caused poor contact and the electrodes must be replaced, the nurse must first turn the pacing function off to avoid receiving electrical shocks when touching the gel side of the electrodes.
Invasive Temporary Pacing. An invasive temporary pacemaker system consists of an external, battery-operated pulse generator and pacing electrodes, or lead wires. These wires attach to the generator on one end and are in contact with the heart on the other end. Electrical pulses, or stimuli, are emitted from the negative terminal of the generator, flow through a lead wire, and stimulate the cardiac cells to depolarize. The current seeks ground by returning through the other lead wire to the positive terminal of the generator, thus completing a circuitous route. The intensity of electrical current is set by selecting the appropriate current output, measured in milliamperes.
The client does not usually feel invasive pacemaker stimuli; however, clients occasionally feel an uncomfortable sensation from the stimuli if strong electrical currents (high milliamperage) are delivered by the pacemaker. The discomfort may be alleviated by decreasing the current if possible.
The two types of invasive temporary pacing are transvenous pacing and epicardial pacing
Transvenous Pacing. Transvenous ventricular pacing involves the use of fluoroscopy to thread a sterile catheter, containing two lead wires, percutaneously through a vein to the right ventricle for temporary pacing. The catheter electrode tip (negative electrode) is in contact with the endocardial surface of the ventricle, where it fixates for stability.
The positive electrode is located just proximal to the tip of the catheter. The bifurcated external end of the catheter is attached to the negative and positive terminals of a battery-operated pulse generator. The generator provides the electrical current needed to stimulate the myocardial cells to depolarize. Some clients with a dysfunctional sinus node but an intact AV node may require only temporary atrial pacing.
If the client needs the atrial kick from atrial contractions, a temporary dual-chamber pacemaker is used, with one catheter tip in the right atrium and the other in the right ventricle. This preserves the normal timing of atrial contraction preceding ventricular contraction.
Nursing management of the client after temporary transvenous pacemaker insertion includes continuous ECG monitoring, frequent assessment of vital signs and the pacemaker insertion site, restriction of the client’s movement to prevent lead wire displacement, and documentation of pacemaker settings. The qualified nurse or other health care provider must assess stimulation and sensitivity thresholds according to institutional protocols.
Epicardial Pacing. Epicardial pacing is accomplished with separate lead wires loosely threaded on the epicardial surface of the heart after cardiac surgery. The other ends of the wires exit through the chest wall. They attach to the negative and positive terminals of a pulse generator. The electrical current flows from epicardium to endocardium, from right to left.
Complications. Complications of invasive temporary pacing may be serious and include the following:
• Infection or hematoma at the pacemaker wire insertion site
• Ectopic complexes (usually premature ventricular complexes [PVCs]), caused by irritability from the pacing wire in the ventricle, use of high current, or undersensing with pacemaker competition
• Loss of capture, noted by the presence of a pacing stim ulus or spike but no QRS complex
• Undersensing or pacemaker competition, noted when pacing stimuli occur at a fixed rate in the presence of an adequate intrinsic rhythm
• Oversensing, noted when the pacemaker fails to fire in the presence of an inadequate intrinsic rhythm
• Electromagnetic interference, noted by altered generator variables
• Stimulation of the chest wall or diaphragm, noted by rhythmic contraction of the chest wall muscles or hic cups with use of high current or from lead wire perforation, which could cause cardiac tamponade
Prevention of Microshock. When the metal external ends of lead wires are not attached to a pulse generator, the nurse must insulate the wire ends to prevent microshock. The fingertips of rubber gloves work well for this purpose, and the wire ends may then be looped and covered with nonconductive tape. All electrical equipment in the room must be properly grounded, using a three-pronged plug. The nurse must report faulty electrical equipment, such as frayed or broken electrical wires, to the biomedical engineering department. Neither the client nor the bed should be in contact with such equipment. The risk is that ungrounded electrical current may conduct through the lead wire, stimulate the heart, and induce ventricular fibrillation (VF).
CARDIOVERSION. Cardioversion is a synchronized countershock that may be performed in emergencies for hemodynamically unstable ventricular or supraventricular tachydysrhythmias or electively for stable tachydysrhythmias that are resistant to medical therapies. If the client has been taking digitalis, the nurse withholds the drug for up to 48 hours preceding an elective cardioversion, as ordered. Digitalis increases ventricular irritability and puts the client at risk for VF after the countershock.
The shock depolarizes a critical mass of myocardium simultaneously during intrinsic depolarization. The shock is intended to stop the re-entry circuit and allow the sinus node to regain control of the heart. The physician and skilled personnel must be in attendance during this procedure, with emergency equipment at hand. The physician explains the procedure to the client and assists him or her in signing a consent form unless the procedure is an emergency for a life-threatening dysrhythmia. Because the client is usually conscious, the nurse administers IV sedation as ordered. An anesthesiologist may administer a short-acting anesthetic agent.
The defibrillator should be in the synchronized mode. This avoids discharging the shock during the vulnerable period (T wave), which may increase ventricular irritability, causing VF. The nurse charges the defibrillator to the energy ordered by the physician, usually starting at 50 to 100 Joules. The nurse ensures that the oxygen delivery device has been removed and turned away from the client. Oxygen supports combustion, and a fire may result if there is arcing from the paddles. Arcing is usually due to improper paddle contact on the chest. At least
After cardioversion, the nurse assesses the client’s response and heart rhythm. Therapy is repeated as ordered, if necessary, until the desired result is obtained or alternative therapies are considered. If the client goes into VF after cardioversion, the nurse must ensure that the synchronizer is turned off and then immediately defibrillate the client.
Nursing care after cardioversion includes the following:
§ Maintaining a patent airway
§ Administering oxygen
§ Assessing vital signs and the level of consciousness
§ Administering antidysrhythmic drug therapy
§ Monitoring for dysrhythmias
§ Assessing for chest burns from paddle edges that may not have been on the conductive pad
§ Providing emotional support
§ Documenting the results of cardioversion
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION. Management of the client in cardiac arrest depends on prompt recognition and therapeutic interventions for successful reversal of a potentially fatal event.
When cardiac arrest occurs, cardiac output ceases. The underlying rhythm is usually ventricular tachycardia (VT), ventricular fibrillation (VF), or asystole. In rare instances, cardiac arrest occurs in the presence of an organized electrocardiographic (ECG) rhythm, but with no effectual mechanical response, a condition referred to as pulseless electrical activity (PEA). Without cardiac output, the client is pulseless and becomes unconscious because of inadequate cerebral perfusion. Shortly after cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest occurs.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) must be initiated immediately to help prevent brain damage and death. The nurse, finding an unresponsive client, calls 911 or notifies the emergency response team before initiating CPR. The initial priorities are as follows:
• Maintenance of a patent airway
• Ventilation with a mouth-to-mask device
• Chest compressions
As soon as help arrives, a board is placed under the client who is not on a firm surface. To make room for the resuscitation team and the crash cart, the nurse commands that the area be cleared of movable items and unnecessary personnel.
Complications of CPR include rib fractures, fracture of the sternum, costochondral separation, lacerations of the liver and spleen, pneumothorax, hemothorax, cardiac tamponade, lung contusions, and fat emboli. The goal of resuscitation is the rapid return of a pulse, blood pressure, and consciousness. This is rarely achieved by CPR and basic measures alone. More definitive therapy must be initiated as soon as possible with advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) measures, including defibrillation, if warranted.
The goal is to be able to give a defibrillatory shock within 5 minutes of collapse outside of a hospital, and within 3 minutes in a hospital. To help meet this goal, automated external defibrillators (AEDs) should be placed where there is a probability of at least one sudden cardiac arrest every 5 years, such as on airplanes.
ADVANCED CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT. When the crash cart arrives, the nurse applies ECG electrodes to the client’s chest and turns on the monitor, directing the team to continue CPR. If the client is found to be in VF or pulseless VT, the immediate priority is to defibrillate. Following defibrillation, CPR is resumed. An oropharyngeal airway is inserted to facilitate proper ventilation. A manual resuscitation bag (MRB) with mask is attached to an oxygen flowmeter set at 10 to 15 L/min. The nurse directs that the person managing the airway now ventilate the lungs with the MRB, maintaining the proper head-tilt, chin-lift position of the client. Nurses initiate two large-bore IV lines if the client does not have any, infusing normal saline. These lines provide access for emergency drug administration. Suction equipment is also set up, with a tonsillar suction tube for suctioning vomitus and a suctioncatheter for endotracheal suctioning. Carotid or femoral pulse checks during chest compressions and without chest compressions, blood pressure measurements, and pupil assessments are done at frequent intervals. A nurse documents all assessments and findings, therapeutic measures, and the client’s responses throughout the resuscitation.
Additional measures include endotracheal intubation with ventilation and oxygenation, IV administration of emergency cardiac drugs, and occasionally, external pacing. Chest compressions are continued as long as the client remains pulseless or until a physician decides to terminate resuscitation attempts.
DEFIBRILLATION. Defibrillation, an asynchronous countershock, depolarizes a critical mass of myocardium simultaneously to stop the re-entry circuit and to allow the sinus node to regain control of the heart. Early defibrillation is critical to terminate pulseless VT or VF. It must not be delayed for any reason after the equipment and skilled personnel are present. The earlier defibrillation is performed, the greater the chance of survival.
If a defibrillator is not immediately available, an ACLS-qualified nurse may deliver a precordial thump to a pulseless client in VF. There is a slight chance that it may succeed in terminating the VF. A precordial thump is performed by striking the lower half of the sternum with a closed fist from a height of 8 to
AUTOMATIC EXTERNAL DEFIBRILLATION. The American Heart Association promotes the use of automatic external defibrillators (AEDs) for use by laypersons and health care providers responding to cardiac arrest emergencies. The client in cardiac arrest must be on a firm, dry surface. The rescuer places two large adhesive patch electrodes on the client’s chest in the same positions as for defibrillator paddles. The rescuer stops CPR and commands anyone present to move away, ensuring that no one is touching the client. This measure eliminates motion artifact when the machine analyzes the rhythm. The rescuer presses the “analyze” button on the machine. After rhythm analysis, which may take up to 30 seconds, the machine either advises that a shock is necessary or advises that a shock is not indicated. Shocks are recommended for pulseless VF or VT only.
After issuing a command to clear all contact with the client, the rescuer charges the defibrillator and presses both discharge buttons on the machine simultaneously, delivering the first shock at 200 Joules. The shock is delivered through the patches, so it is hands-off defibrillation, which is safer for the rescuer. The rescuer then presses the analyze button again, repeating the sequence. With sustained VF or VT, two more shocks may be delivered, with the third at 360 Joules. If the client remains in cardiac arrest, CPR is performed for 1 minute, and then another series of three shocks may be delivered, each at 360 Joules. It is imperative that ACLS be provided as soon as possible. Use of automatic external defibrillators (AEDs) results in earlier defibrillation of clients and therefore a greater chance of successful rhythm conversion and survival
RADIOFREQUENCY CATHETER ABLATION. Radiofrequency catheter ablation is an invasive procedure that may be used to abolish an irritable focus causing a supraventricular or ventricular tachydysrhythmia. The client must undergo electrophysiologic studies and mapping procedures to locate the focus. Then radiofrequency waves are delivered to abolish the irritable focus. When ablation is performed in the AV nodal or His bundle area, damage may also occur to the normal conduction system, causing heart blocks and requiring implantation of a permanent pacemaker.
SURGICAL MANAGEMENT. Clients who experience life-threatening dysrhythmias may require surgical treatment for long-term management. The type of treatment depends on the nature of the dysrhythmia. Procedures include permanent pacing, coronary artery bypass grafting, aneurysmectomy, insertion of an implantable cardioverter/defibrillator, and open-chest cardiac massage.
PERMANENT PACING. Permanent pacemaker insertion is performed for the resolution of conduction disorders that are not temporary, including complete heart block and sick sinus syndrome. Permanent pacemakers are usually powered by a lithium battery and have an average life span of 10 years. After the battery power is depleted, the generator must be replaced, a procedure done with the client under local anesthesia. Some pacemakers are nuclear powered and have a life span of 20 years or longer. Other pacemakers can be recharged externally.
Types of Pacemakers. Pacemakers may have a single chamber or dual chambers. With single-chamber pacemakers, a lead wire is positioned in the chamber to be paced, most commonly the right ventricle. Occasionally it is positioned in the right atrium for bradydysrhythmias originating from sinoatrial (SA) node disease with an intact atrioventricular (AV) conduction system.
Dual-chamber pacemakers have lead wires placed in the right atrium and the right ventricle for a more physiologic effect, preserving the atrial kick. A programmed AV interval, which closely relates to the PR interval, ensures a ventricular response shortly after atrial depolarization.
The DDD pacemaker is commonly implanted. It is able to sense both atrial and ventricular intrinsic activity and pace both the atrium and the ventricle. It allows sinus control of the ventricular rate to meet increased metabolic demands when the sinus node is functioning well. If the client’s sinus rate drops below the lower rate set, the generator paces both the atrium and the ventricle.
Another feature of many pacemakers is rate responsiveness. To allow faster pacing rates to meet increased body demands, the generator changes the pacing rate in response to a detected change in a physiologic variable, such as muscle movement within the client with impaired sinus or atrial function. Hysteresis, on the other hand, is a feature that allows the client’s rate to slow to 10 to 20 beats lower than the generator’s preset rate before the generator paces the client. The slower pace allows for a more normal physiologic slowing response during rest or sleep.
Surgical Procedures. For both single-chamber and dual-chamber pacemakers, the surgeon most commonly implants the pulse generator in a surgically made subcutaneous pocket at the shoulder in the right or left subclavicular area. The leads are introduced transvenously via the cephalic or the subclavian vein to the endocardium on the right side of the heart. After the procedure, the nurse monitors the client’s electrocardiographic (ECG) rhythm to ensure that the pacemaker is functioning correctly. The implantation site is assessed for evidence of bleeding, swelling, redness, tenderness, or infection. The dressing over the site should remain clean and dry, and the client should be afebrile and have stable vital signs. The physician orders activity restrictions to enhance lead fixation. After 24 hours, activity is gradually increased. Complications of permanent pacemakers are similar to those for temporary invasive pacing.
Pacemaker checks are done on an ambulatory care basis at regular intervals. Reprogramming may be warranted if there are pacemaker problems. The pulse generator is interrogated using an electronic device to determine the pacemaker settings and battery life.
For clients who live far from the pacemaker clinic or physician’s office, pacemaker information can be sent via transtelephonic transmission of data. The client attaches ECG electrodes to the wrists and places the telephone receiver in a transmitting unit. The sound signals are relayed via telephone lines to the clinic or office, where they are converted and recorded as the client’s ECG rhythm strip and information about the pacemaker variables. The nurse stresses the need to keep clinic appointments for more detailed pacemaker checks and reprogramming, if necessary, as well as assessment.
CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFTING. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is performed if the cause of the dysrhythmia is coronary artery insufficiency that is unresponsive to medical therapy.
ANEURYSMECTOMY. Ventricular aneurysms are a complication of myocardial infarction and may be the source of intractable ventricular tachydysrhythmias. The surgeon resects the aneurysm, a dyskinetic or ballooning portion of the ventricular wall. Resection of the area eliminates the dangerous irritable focus and thus the cause of the dysrhythmias. Care of the client is similar to that for CABG.
INSERTION OF IMPLANTABLE CARDIOVERTER/ DEFIBRILLATOR. The implantable cardioverter/defibrillator (ICD) is indicated for clients who have experienced one or more episodes of spontaneous sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) unrelated to a myocardial infarction or other causes amenable to correction.
Clients undergo electrophysiologic studies to assess the inducibility of VTs and their response to medication. If the dysrhythmias can be induced despite medical therapy, the client is considered a candidate for ICD implantation. The nurse collaborates with the physician and the electrophysiology nurse to prepare the client for an ICD. A psychologic profile is done to determine whether the client will be able to cope with the discomfort and fear associated with internal defibrillation from the ICD.
The leads are introduced percutaneously, and the generator is implanted in the left pectoral area, similar to a permanent pacemaker insertion procedure. This procedure is performed in the electrophysiology laboratory.
The electronic pulse generator is designed to monitor and to defibrillate for VT or VF. The generator is powered by a lithium battery and is connected to a transvenous endocardial lead. The ends of the lead are tunneled under the skin to attach to the generator. The sensing lead transmits electrical signals from the heart to the generator, which continuously monitors the heart rhythm. If the client’s heart rate exceeds the generator’s programmed rate, such as with VT, the generator takes a few seconds to sense the cardiac electrical activity and then delivers a burst of antitachycardial pacing (ATP) to overdrive pace the rhythm. A programmed number of ATP therapies may be delivered. If the client’s rate continues to exceed the rate cutoff, the device can deliver a programmed number of low-energy and high-energy cardioversion shocks. In response to VF, the device delivers defibrillation shocks. Following such therapy, the client may develop a transient bradycardia. Many ICD devices are capable of delivering bradycardial pacing (VVI or ventricular demand pacing). This technology is rapidly changing.
If the ICD therapies are not successful and the client remains in VF or pulseless VT, the qualified nurse or health care provider must promptly externally defibrillate the client.
The generator may be activated or deactivated by the physician’s placing a magnet over the implantation site for a few moments. The client requires close monitoring in the postimplantation period for the occurrence of dysrhythmias and complications such as bleeding and cardiac tamponade. The nurse must know if the ICD is activated or deactivated. Care of the client is similar to that following implantation of a permanent pacemaker.
OPEN-CHEST CARDIAC MASSAGE. When external chest compressions and advanced cardiac life support measures are unsuccessful in resuscitating a client in cardiac arrest, the physician may decide to perform open-chest cardiac massage through a thoracotomy approach or through the median sternotomy incision in post-cardiac surgery clients. Internal defibrillation may also be performed. Open-chest cardiac massage is usually reserved for the client who goes into cardiac arrest during cardiac surgery, often because of cardiac tamponade. It may also be beneficial but is rarely indicated for hypothermia, crushing or penetrating chest injuries, penetrating abdominal trauma, or chest deformities prohibiting external chest compressions.
Community-Based Care
For many clients, dysrhythmias are a chronic disorder resulting from chronic cardiac and pulmonary diseases. Clients may be cared for in a variety of settings, including the acute care hospital, subacute unit, traditional nursing home, or their own home. They are admitted to the hospital when they experience life-threatening or potentially life-threatening dysrhythmias, often associated with an acute disorder. Others can be managed with office or clinic visits or in other settings.
Clients discharged from the hospital may have considerable needs, often more related to their underlying chronic diseases than to their dysrhythmias, which should be essentially controlled by drug or device therapy. A case manager or care coordinator can assess the need for health care resources and coordinate access to services.
HEALTH TEACHING
PREVENTION OF RECURRENCE. Clients who have experienced a dysrhythmia associated with an acute disorder, such as electrolyte imbalance or ischemia related to a myocardial infarction, are instructed in the prevention, early recognition, and management of that disorder. The nurse teaches the client and family about lifestyle modifications designed to prevent, decrease, or control the occurrence of dysrhythmias, as outlined in Chart 34-7. This teaching may be provided in the acute care setting, physician’s office, health care clinic, or home setting.
DRUG THERAPY. Clients and designated caregivers must have a thorough understanding of the prescribed medications, including antidysrhythmic agents. Pharmacies provide written instructions with filled prescriptions. The nurse teaches clients and families the generic and trade names of their drugs, as well as the drugs’ purposes, using basic terms that are easily understood. Clear instructions regarding dosage schedules and common side effects are important. The nurse emphasizes the importance of reporting these side effects and any dizziness, nausea, vomiting, chest discomfort, or shortness of breath to the health care provider. Chart 34-8 highlights special considerations for older adults receiving antidysrhythmic therapy.
PULSE CHECK. The nurse teaches all clients and their significant others or family members how to take a pulse. The nurse instructs them to report any signs of a change in heart rhythm, such as a significant decrease in pulse rate, a rate greater than 100 beats/min, or increased rhythm irregularity.
PACEMAKER. Clients who have a permanent pacemaker are given written and verbal information about the type and settings of their pacemaker. They are taught to report any pulse rate lower than that set on the pacemaker or lower than the hysteresis rate. The nurse also reviews the proper care of the pacemaker insertion site and the importance of reporting any fever or any redness, swelling, or drainage at the pacemaker insertion site. If the surgical incision is near either shoulder, the nurse teaches and demonstrates range-of-motion exercises to perform to prevent shoulder stiffness.
Clients with pacemakers are also instructed to keep handheld cellular phones at least
IMPLANTABLE CARDIOVERTER/DEFIBRILLATOR. Clients with an implantable cardioverter/defibrillator (ICD) usually continue to receive antidysrhythmic drugs after discharge from the hospital. The nurse provides clear instructions about the purposes of the medications, the dosage schedules, special instructions for taking the medications, and side effects to report. If clients experience an internal defibrillator shock, they must sit or lie down immediately and notify the physician. Some clients describe the experience of a shock as a quick thud or kick in the chest, whereas others relate severe pain similar to that of external defibrillation. The nurse informs family members that they may feel an electrical shock if they are touching the client during delivery of the shock but that it is not harmful. Information on how to access the emergency medical services (
The nurse teaches clients with an ICD to avoid sources of strong electromagnetic fields, such as large electrical generators and radio or television transmitters. These may inhibit tachydysrhythmia detection and therapy or may cause inadvertent antitachycardial pacing or shocks. Magnetic resonance imaging is contraindicated for clients with ICDs. Handheld cellular phones must be at least
■ HOME CARE MANAGEMENT
The focus of the home care nurse’s interventions is assessment and health teaching. Clients and families often fear recurrence of a life-threatening dysrhythmia. Clients with an ICD may dread or fear the activation of the ICD. The community-based nurse provides the client and family members with an opportunity to verbalize their concerns and fears. The nurse provides emotional support, as well as information about support groups in the community, and makes appropriate referrals. The client is assessed for possible side effects of antidysrhythmic agents or complications from a pacemaker or ICD.
HEALTH CARE RESOURCES
The cardiac rehabilitatiourse typically provides written and oral information about dysrhythmias, antidysrhythmic drugs, pacemakers, and ICDs, as well as information about cardiac exercise programs, educational programs, and support groups. The office or clinic nurse may also provide information about resources. The nurse instructs the client on how to contact the local affiliate of the American Heart Association or the provincial affiliate of the Heart and Stroke Foundation in Canada for information about dysrhythmias, pacemakers, and CPR training Manufacturers of pacemakers and ICDs provide helpful booklets and videotapes to give clients and their families a better understanding of these therapies. Clients with pacemakers may have transtelephonic systems for transmission of their rhythms to a clinic or health care provider’s office. The nurse teaches clients how to use these systems. The importance of keeping scheduled appointments for office visits with the cardiologist and pacemaker or ICD clinic is stressed. The nurse instructs clients with an ICD to contact the local ambulance or paramedic services and emergency facilities to inform them that they have these devices implanted. The client and family are encouraged to attend pacemaker or ICD support groups.
Evaluation: Outcomes
The nurse evaluates the care of the client with dysrhythmias on the basis of the identified nursing diagnoses and collaborative problems. The expected outcomes are that the client will:
§ Have vital signs in the expected range (IER)
§ Have cognitive status IER
§ Perform activities of daily living without dyspnea or fatigue
§ Be free of pulmonary edema