Interventions for Clients with Oral Cavity Problems

June 4, 2024
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Interventions for Clients with Oral Cavity Problems

 

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:


1.             Develop a teaching plan for clients who have stomatitis.

2.             Explain the common causes of malignant oral tumors.

3.             Identify commoursing diagnoses for clients with oral cancer.

4.             Prioritize postoperative care for clients undergoing surgery for oral cancer.

5.             Develop a teaching plan for community-based care of clients with oral cancer.

 


Oral cavity disorders can severely impact speech, nutri­tion, body image, and overall quality of life. Nurses play an important role in maintaining and restoring oral cavity health in their clients through nursing interventions and client edu­cation. Chart 54-1 lists ways for clients to maintain a healthy oral cavity.

 

STOMATITIS

OVERVIEW

Stomatitis is characterized by painful, single or multiple ul-cerations of the oral mucosa that appear as inflammation and denudation of the oral mucosa, impairing the protective lining of the mouth. These ulcerations are commonly referred to as canker sores. Although the terms stomatitis and mucositis may be used interchangeably, stomatitis is contained in the oral cavity, and mucositis may be more generalized through­out the mucous membranes. The ulceration causes pain, and open areas predispose the individual to bleeding and infec­tion. Although infection remains the most life-threatening complication of stomatitis, pain is the most common com­plaint (Eilers, 1997). Mild erythema (redness) may respond to topical treatments, whereas extensive stomatitis may require treatment with opioid analgesics.

Stomatitis is classified according to the cause of the in­flammation. Primary stomatitis includes aphmous stomatitis, herpes simplex stomatitis, and traumatic ulcers. Secondary stomatitis generally results from infection by opportunistic viruses or bacteria, particularly in clients with immunosup-pressive disorders.

Pathophysiology

The oral mucosa is a protective lining of stratified, squamous, and nonkeratinizing epithelium that extends from the mouth at the junction of the lips to the oropharynx (throat). Inflam­matory processes induced by infectious agents, allergy, vita­min deficiency, systemic disease, or antineoplastic drugs cause injury to oral cavity membranes. Cells that are damaged by the inflammatory process slough off, leading to an ulcer­ated oral mucosa. The ulcerations formed are painful, and bleeding results secondary to erosion of oral mucous mem­branes (Eilers, 1997).

Etiology

Stomatitis can result from infection, allergy, vitamin defi­ciency, systemic disease, chemotherapy, or radiation. Infec­tious agents, such as bacteria and viruses, may have a role in the development of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. L-forms of streptococcus bacteria have been isolated from aphthous ul­cers. Although viruses have not been successfully cultured from aphthous lesions, recurrent lesions have been associated with latent zoster or cytomegalovirus (CMV).

The implication that certain foods trigger allergic re­sponses that result in the formation of aphthous ulcers re­mains controversial. Foods such as coffee, potatoes, cheese, nuts, citrus fruits, and gluten may be precipitating factors. In some cases, strict elimination diets have resulted in the im­provement of ulcers. Deficiencies in vitamin B12, folate, and iron associated with malnutrition can contribute to the forma­tion of stomatitis.

Systemic diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and chronic renal failure can also predispose a person to stomatitis. Approximately 50% of first-degree rel­atives of individuals with aphthous ulcers also have the dis­ease, suggesting a genetic link to stomatitis (Woo & Sonis, 1996). Treatment of disease states such as cancer can predis­pose an individual to the development of painful stomatitis or mucositis. Thirty-nine to fifty percent of clients undergoing chemotherapy or radiation to the head and neck for cancer re port experiencing stomatitis (Hyland, 1997).



 


CLIENT EDUCATION GUIDE Maintaining a Heaithy Oral Cavity

   Perform a self-examination of your mouth every month;
report any unusual finding.

   Be sure to eat a balanced diet.

Brush and floss your teeth every day. Set a routine and keep to it.

   Manage your stress as much as possible; learn how to
maintain your emotional health.

   Avoid contact with agents that may cause inflammation
of the mouth, such as mouthwashes that contain alcohol.

   If possible, avoid medications that may cause inflamma­
tion of the mouth or reduce the flow of saliva.

   Be aware of any changes in the occlusion of your teeth,
mouth pain, or swelling; seek medical attention promptly.

   See your dentist regularly; have problems attended to
promptly.

If you wear dentures, make sure they are in good repair and fit properly.

The severity of stomatitis is related to the type and dose of therapy, as well as to client-related factors, such as pretreatment oral health (Eilers, 1997). (See Chapter 25 for nursing care of the client undergoing radiation and chemotherapy.)

The symptoms of stomatitis range in severity from a dry, painful mouth to open ulcerations, predisposing the client to infection. Mouth ulcerations can alter nutritional status as a result of difficulty with food ingestion or swallowing. When severe, stomatitis and the edema that can accompany it have the potential to impact airway integrity.

Incidence/Prevalence

Aphthous stomatitis is the most common oral lesion treated by primary care providers. It has been found to affect more than 50% of the population and is especially common in North America (Peterson & Baughman, 1996). The incidence of stomatitis in clients undergoing cancer chemotherapy is approximately 40% (Beck, 1996).

 WOMEN’S HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS A hormonal influence has been suggested in relation to women and aphthous stomatitis. Women generally have a higher prevalence of the disorder, with an increased incidence of oral ul-ceration during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. A mod­eration or absence of lesions during pregnancy has been attrib­uted to increased steroid levels (Peterson & Baughman, 1996).

 Primary Stomatitis

■APHTHOUS STOMATITIS

Aphthous stomatitis is a noninfectious inflammatory condi­tion of the oral mucosa. Aphthous ulcers are categorized as minor, major, or herpetiform. Eighty percent of aphthous le­sions are minor ulcers, measuring less than 0.4 inch (1 cm) in diameter and occurring in groups of up to five lesions. These lesions appear most commonly on the buccal mucosa, soft palate, oropharyngeal mucosa, and lateral and ventral areas of the tongue. The lesions appear as shallow, painful ulcerations covered by a yellow-gray pseudomembrane and exterior erythematous ring. Major aphthous ulcers make up 7% to 20% of aphthous ulcers, are larger than 1 cm, persist for months, and may heal with scarring. Herpetiform ulcers make up 7% to 10% of aphthous ulcers, occur in groups of 10 or more, and are usually located in the posterior part of the mouth (Woo & Sonis, 1996).

 HERPES SIMPLEX STOMATITIS

The herpes simplex virus (HSV) is responsible for the devel-; opment of primary herpes simplex stomatitis, also called acute herpetic stomatitis. The uniformly sized vesicles occur most often on the tongue, palate, and buccal and labial mu-cosae. The vesicles rupture soon after appearing, leaving painful, ulcerated areas surrounded by erythematous margins. The lesions at this stage are similar to aphthous ulcers. The ulcerated areas heal in 10 to 14 days. The mucosal vesicles are generally accompanied by acute inflammation of the gingiva, occasionally with herpetic lesions. The tongue has a charac­teristic white coating, and the client complains of a foul breath. Primary HSV infection is characterized by symptoms of generalized infection, including malaise, fever, and lym-phadenopathy.

HSV enters injured oral mucosal tissue, where it replicates in the cells of the dermis and epidermis, resulting in primary HSV infection. Although stomatitis caused by HSV can occur as either a primary or secondary (recurrent) infection, sec­ondary infections are more common. Two types of HSV have been identified: HSV type 2, which causes genital lesions (discussed in Chapter 77), and HSV type 1, which is respon­sible for nongenital lesions.

HSV infection is extremely common. Primary herpetic stomatitis is usually contracted in childhood but may be seen in adults. Immunocompromised clients tend to experience more severe and extensive HSV infections.

  VINCENT’S STOMATITIS

Vincent’s stomatitis, or acute necrotizing stomatitis, is an acute bacterial infection of the gingiva characterized by erythema, ulceration, and necrosis of the gingival margins. The gingival papillae between the teeth appear worn away and raw. The gin-givae often bleed spontaneously or from mild irritation, such as chewing. Clients complain of severe pain; foul breath; thick, ropy secretions; and increased salivation. Systemic clinical manifestations can include malaise, poor appetite, and occa­sionally, enlargement of cervical lymph nodes.

The disease has a sudden onset and is related to a de­creased resistance of tissues to normal oral bacterial flora. Systemic etiologic factors that decrease tissue resistance in­clude poor nutrition, leukemia, and severe infections such as pyelonephritis. Poor oral hygiene and extreme emotional stress have been suggested as contributing factors.

Necrotizing gingivitis occurs primarily in adults, and the incidence seems to increase with aging. Older adults have an increased susceptibility to infections because of decreased immunocompetence.

 TRAUMATIC ULCERS

Oral trauma is thought to be the most common precipitating factor in the development of recurrent aphthous stomatitis (Peterson & Baughman, 1996). Traumatic ulcers can develop at the site of an injury. Traumatic insults, such as injuries from dental procedures, cheek biting, and hot foods, can lead to ul-ceration. Such injuries can also allow the entry of bacteria, re­sulting in secondary infection.

Traumatic ulcers are commonly found in clients with mal-occlusion, ill-fitting dentures, or broken teeth and in those who habitually bite their oral mucosa. In addition, individuals with recurrent aphthous stomatitis are predisposed to devel­oping additional ulcers at the site of a traumatic injury.

 Secondary Stomatitis

 LICHEN PLANUS

Lichen planus is an inflammatory mucocutaneous disease in­volving both the skin and the oral mucous membranes. The lesions may be active or in remission, with external lesions af­fecting the extremities and the genitalia. Symmetric white oral lesions of various patterns appear on the tongue and buc-cal and labial mucosae. Eighty percent of all lichen planus le­sions are bilateral, appearing on the buccal mucosa (Burkhart, Burkes, & Burker, 1997). The remaining 20% are localized to the tongue or lips.

The etiology of the disease is unknown, but recent devel­opments indicate that there may be a cell-mediated immune response involved in the progression of the lesions. Disease states such as diabetes and hypertension may invoke lichenoid reactions from the medications used to treat these conditions. Oral lichen planus may also be associated with hepatitis C in­fection (Bagan et al., 1998). Local irritants and trauma are contributing factors associated with the progression of lichenoid lesions. There has been conflicting evidence sug­gesting stress as a mediator of lichen planus. In addition, the chronic inflammatory nature of lichen planus may prove to be a risk factor for oral cancer.

Lichen planus affects 1 % to 2% of the population, occur­ring more often in women than in men and occurring most often in clients ages 40 to 50 years (Burkhart, Burkes, & Burker, 1997). It occurs in all races, with variations in sever­ity among the racial groups. Although the oral lesions them­selves are often asymptomatic, an erosive form of the disor der can cause pain that interferes with speech and swallow­ing. The diagnosis of lichen planus is confirmed through tis­sue biopsy.

 


 CANDIDIASIS (MONILIASIS)

In oral candidiasis, white plaquelike lesions appear on the tongue, palate, pharynx, and buccal mucosa (Figure 54-1). When these patches are wiped away, the underlying surface appears red and sore (Sheff, 1999). Clients rarely complain of actual pain but describe the lesions as dry or hot.

Candida albicans is part of the normal flora of the oral cav­ity. Candidiasis, also called moniliasis, is a fungal infection resulting from an overgrowth of this normal flora. With recur­rent candidiasis, as with all secondary stomatitis, a causative systemic disorder should be sought. Antibiotic therapy de­stroys the normal flora that usually prevent fungal infections; thus candidiasis can occur in clients receiving long-term an­tibiotic therapy. Candidiasis of the oral cavity is common in clients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy (chemother­apy, radiation, steroid therapy, or antirejection medication). For example, chemotherapy affects the rapidly dividing cells of the oral mucosa, leading to ulcerations that have a propen­sity to become infected secondary to a decreased immune re­sponse. Candidiasis is also very common among HIV-infected individuals, becoming increasingly likely as CD4+ cell counts fall (Klaus & Grodesky, 1998).

 CONSIDERATIONS FOR OLDER ADULTS

 Older adults are especially at high risk for candidiasis be­cause aging causes a decrease in immune function. The risk increases for clients who are diabetic, malnourished, or under emotional stress. Older adults who wear dentures may use soft denture liners that provide comfort but can also be colo­nized by C. albicans, contributing to denture stomatitis (Dixon, Breeding, & Faler, 1999).

 COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT

 Assessment

HISTORY

The nurse collects information concerning possible etiologic factors, such as recent infections, a history of stomatitis, nu­tritional compromise, oral hygiene habits, oral trauma, stress, or immunocompromise. A medication history should also be collected. The nurse records the course of the current out­break and ascertains if episodes of stomatitis are recurrent. The client is asked if the lesions interfere with swallowing or eating.

 PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

While examining the oral cavity, the nurse wears nonsterile gloves for protection against infection. Adequate lighting, in­cluding a flashlight or penlight, and a tongue blade facilitate the examination. The nurse assesses the oral cavity for le­sions, coating, cracking, and fissures. Characteristics of the lesions are described in terms of location, size, shape, color, and drainage. Any odors that may be present are noted and described. If lesions are noted along the pharynx, and if the client re­ports dysphagia or pain on swallowing, the nurse should sus­pect that the lesions may extend farther down the esophagus. Additional diagnostic testing may be required. The physical examination may also include examination of the cervical and submandibular lymph nodes for swelling. Any elevation in temperature is noted.

LABORATORY ASSESSMENT

Laboratory tests are usually not needed. However, serum al­bumin, vitamin B12, folate, and iron levels may be obtained if nutritional status appears to be compromised. A complete blood count may reveal the presence of infection, neutrope-nia, or anemia. A Tzank smear can assist in distinguishing be­tween herpatic and aphthous ulcers. Fluid from herpetic vesi­cles in herpes simplex stomatitis may be obtained for viral culture. Bacterial culture of exudate from the oral mucosa val­idates Vincent’s stomatitis or secondary infection. A potas­sium hydroxide slide preparation or a routine culture and Gram stain can help identify Candida organisms.

 Interventions

Interventions for stomatitis are aimed toward the promotion of oral health through scrupulous oral hygiene and careful food selection.

ORAL HYGIENE. The nurse or assistive nursing person­nel uses a soft-bristled toothbrush or disposable foam swabs (toothettes) to stimulate gums and clean the oral cavity. The nurse encourages frequent rinsing of the mouth with any of the following: sodium bicarbonate solution, warm saline, or hydrogen peroxide solution. The client should avoid com­mercial mouthwashes because they have a high alcohol con­tent, causing a burning sensation in irritated or ulcerated oral mucosa.

The nurse instructs the client to increase mouth care to every 2 hours and twice at night if the stomatitis is not con­trolled. Frequent gentle mouth care enhances debridement of ulcerated lesions and can prevent superinfections. Frequent oral care also promotes a general feeling of well-being. Chart 54-2 lists measures for special oral care.

 



DRUG THERAPY. Anti-infective agents, including an­tibiotics and antifungals, may be necessary for control of in­fection in the client with stomatitis. The nurse administers anti-infectives as ordered and provides instruction on how to take them. The health care provider prescribes systemic an­tibiotics severe recurrent or Vincent’s stomatitis. Investiga­tions have linked recurrent aphthous stomatitis to strains of L-streptococci. Tetracycline syrup 250 mg/10 mL four times a day for 10 days may be prescribed. The client rinses for 2 minutes and swallows the syrup, thus obtaining both topical and systemic therapy. Chlorhexidine, an oral rinse, can be beneficial in preventing infection, since it is active against numerous bacteria and fungi. However, chlorhexidine pre­pared in the United States is 9.6% alcohol and therefore may cause stinging and burning on administration. Chlorhexidine causes a brown discoloration of the teeth that can be removed with oxidizing agents and abrasives.

Antibiotics are of little value in viral or fungal stomatitis unless a secondary infection is present. Systemic antibiotics are ineffective for lichen planus and are not recommended.

A regimen of intravenous (IV) acyclovir (Zovirax) is usu­ally prescribed for immunocompromised clients who contract herpes simplex stomatitis. Acyclovir is typically administered to clients with normal renal function at a dose of 5 mg/kg, in­fused at a constant rate over a 1-hour period every 8 hours for 7 days. Clients with competent immune systems may be given acyclovir in oral or topical form.

For clients with oral candidal infection, an antifungal agent is prescribed, such as nystatin (Mycostatin, Nadostine) oral suspension 600,000 units four times daily for 7 to 10 days. The nurse teaches the client to swish the solution around in the mouth before swallowing. Oral troches (lozenges) may also be effective. Clients who are taking inhaled steroids should be advised to use a spacer to decrease the amount of medication left in the mouth. In addition, the client should rinse the mouth with warm water after using inhalers, to rinse away any deposited drug (Shuster, 1998). Systemic steroids can be of benefit in long-standing lichen planus.

ANALGESICS. Interventions for clients with stomatitis should include pain control, because pain is consistently pres­ent during an outbreak. The nurse performs a comprehensive assessment of pain that includes the following: location, char­acteristics, onset and duration, frequency, quality, intensity, severity, and precipitating factors.

Topically applied agents or oral analgesics temporarily re­lieve severe oral pain (Table 54-1). Agents containing 20% benzocaine provide temporary pain relief and can be applied to the affected areas three to four times daily. Fifteen millilitres of 2% viscous lidocaine every 3 hours (maximum of 8 doses per day) can be used as a gargle or mouthwash. The health care provider often prescribes topical swishes for herpes simplex stomatitis and lichen planus. These suspensions can be offered in frozen form; the numbing effects of the cold provide longer analgesia. Topical corticosteroids

are indicated for aphthous ulcers, lichen planus, and the lesions of primary herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. Triamcinolone cream is applied with the finger or a cottontipped applicator, or the corticosteroid can be injected directly into the lesion. Occasionally, systemic approaches to pain relief need to be employed. For moderate to severe stomatitis, around-theclock administration of combinations of opioid and nonopioid analgesics, such as acetaminophen and codeine, is recommended. If the pain is unrelieved, or if the stomatitis is severe, morphine may be used until healing occurs. Any time a client receives an intervention for pain, the nurse monitors the effectiveness of the pain control measures through an ongoing assessment of the pain experience.

 

TUMORS

OVERVIEW

Oral cavity tumors can be benign, premalignant, or malignant. Whether benign or malignant, tumors of the oral cavity impact many daily functions. Activities such as swallowing, chewing, and speaking can be affected. Pain accompanying the tumor can also impose limitations on daily activities and self-care. Oral cavity tumors affect body image, especially if treatment involves removal of the tongue or part of the mandible, or requires a tracheostomy.

 

Premalignant Lesions

 

 LEUKOPLAKIA

 

Leukoplakia presents as slowly developing changes in the oral mucous membranes that are characterized by thickened, white, firmly attached patches. These patches appear slightly raised and sharply circumscribed. Leukoplakial lesions undergo malignant transformation in approximately 3% to 6% of cases (Olsen, 1999). Although leukoplakia can be found anywhere on the oral mucosa, lesions on the lips or tongue are more likely to progress to malignancy. Leukoplakia results from mechanical factors that cause long-term oral mucous membrane irritation, such as poorly fitting dentures, chronic cheek nibbling, or broken or poorly repaired teeth. In addition, oral hairy leukoplakia can be found in clients with HIV infection. The use of tobacco products has also been implicated in the development of leukoplakia, which is sometimes referred to as “smoker’s patch.” Oral leukoplakia can be confused with oral candidal infection. However, unlike candidal infection, leukoplakia cannot be removed by scraping. Leukoplakia is the most common oral lesion among adults; it affects 3% of the population and accounts for 18% of all oral lesions (Shugars & Patton, 1997). Oral hairy leukoplakia is an early manifestation of HIV infection and is highly correlated with progression from HIV infection to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Leukoplakia not associated with HIV infection is more often seen in people over age 40. Men have twice the incidence of leukoplakia that women have, but this ratio is changing because increasing numbers of women are smoking.

 

 ERYTHROPLAKIA

Erythroplakia presents as a red, velvety mucosal lesion on the surface of the oral mucosa. There is a higher degree of malignant transformation in erythroplakia than in leukoplakia. As such, these lesions should be regarded with suspicion and analyzed by biopsy. Erythroplakia is most commonly found on the floor of the mouth, tongue, palate, and mandibular mucosa. Erythroplakia can be difficult to distinguish from inflammatory or immune reactions.

 

Malignant Tumors

 

 SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA

 

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. More than 90% of oral cancers are squamous cell carcinomas that begin on the surface of the epithelium. Over a period of many years, premalignant (or dysplastic) changes begin. Cells begin to vary in size and shape; alterations in the thickness of the lining of the epithelium develop, resulting in atrophy. These tumors usually grow slowly, and the lesions may be large before the onset of symptoms unless ulceration is present. Mucosal erythroplasia is the earliest sign of oral carcinoma. Oral lesions that appear as red, raised, eroded areas are suspicious for carcinoma. The American Joint Committee on Cancer has devised the TNM classification system for tumors of the lip and oral cavity (Table 54-2). Each lesion is defined by the following:

T—the size or degree of penetration of the tumor

N—the presence, size, number, and location of involved cervical lymph nodes

M—the presence of distant metastasis (spread)

 

ETIOLOGY. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common oral malignancy. Squamous cell carcinomas can be found on the lips, tongue, buccal mucosa, and oropharynx. The major risk factors in the development of oral cancers are increasing age, tobacco use, and alcohol ingestion. Ninetyfive percent of all oral cancers occur in people over 40 years of age. Tobacco use in any form (e.g., smoking or chewing tobacco) can increase the risk of cancer by 5% to 25%. The use of smokeless tobacco has nearly tripled in the last 20 years. This form of tobacco contains carcinogens and large quantities of nicotine, which can lead to nicotine addiction. Alcohol ingestion can potentate the carcinogenic effects of tobacco. An increased rate of oral carcinoma is found in individuals with certain occupations, such as textile workers, plumbers, and coal and metal workers. Additional factors, such as sun exposure, poor dietary habits, poor oral hygiene, and infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV), require further research. Common signs and symptoms of oral carcinoma include unusual lumps or thickening of the buccal mucosa, or red or white patches appearing on the gums, tongue, or oral mucous membranes. Cancers of the lip are strongly associated with chronic exposure to the sun and often present as a sore that fails to heal. Soreness, pain, or a burning sensation may also be present. In later stages, the client may experience difficulty chewing or swallowing. Advanced cancers of the tongue can cause pain that radiates to the ear. Cervical lymph nodes may become enlarged, hardened, and fixed secondary to metastatic invasion.

 

INCIDENCE/PREVALENCE. Carcinomas of the oral cavity account for approximately 6% of all cancers diagnosed each year in the United States. In 1999 in the United States, approximately 30,000 cases of oral cancer were diagnosed, and 8000 deaths were attributed to the disease (Greenlee etal., 2000). Worldwide, cancers of the mouth and pharynx account for 363,000 new cases and 200,000 deaths annually

(Parkin, Pisani, & Ferlay, 1999).

 


CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

 African Americans have a higher rate of oral carcinoma than Caucasians (Shugars & Patton, 1997). The relative 5-year survival rate for Caucasians with cancer of the oral cavity or pharynx is 55%, compared with a relative 5-year survival rate of 32% for African Americans with oral cancer (National Can­cer Institute, 1999). Higher mortality rates from oral cancer have been associated with limited access to health care.

 BASAL CELL CARCINOMA

Basal cell carcinoma of the oral cavity occurs primarily on the lips. The lesion is asymptomatic and resembles a raised scab. With time, the lesion evolves into a characteristic ulcer with a raised pearly border. Basal cell carcinomas do not metastasize but can aggressively involve the skin of the face. The major etiologic factor in basal cell carcinoma is exposure to sun­light.

Basal cell carcinoma occurs as a result of the failure of basal cells to mature into keratinocytes. It is the second most common type of oral cancer but is much less common than squamous cell carcinoma.

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

Clients who work outdoors or who sunbathe exces­sively, especially Caucasians with fair skin, are more likely to have basal cell carcinomas.

 KAPOSI’S SARCOMA

Kaposi’s sarcoma is a malignant lesion arising in blood ves­sels. Kaposi’s sarcoma is usually painless and appears as a raised purple nodule or plaque. In the mouth the hard palate is the most common site of Kaposi’s sarcoma, but it can also be found on the gums, tongue, or tonsils. It is most often as­sociated with AIDS. (See Chapter 22 for a complete discus­sion of Kaposi’s sarcoma.)


 


pain that radiates to the ear. Cervical lymph nodes may become enlarged, hardened, and fixed secondary to metastatic invasion.

INCIDENCE/PREVALENCE. Carcinomas of the oral cavity account for approximately 6% of all cancers diagnosed each year in the United States. In 1999 in the United States, approximately 30,000 cases of oral cancer were diagnosed, and 8000 deaths were attributed to the disease (Greenlee et al., 2000). Worldwide, cancers of the mouth and pharynx ac­count for 363,000 new cases and 200,000 deaths annually (Parkin, Pisani, & Ferlay, 1999).


COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT

Assessment

  HISTORY

A priority for nurses in the prevention and detection of oral cancers is the identification of high-risk groups. Individuals at high risk for developing oral cancer tend to use large amounts of alcohol and tobacco and are over 40 years of age. The nurse asks about occupation and exposure to known oral carcinogens or irritants, such as sunlight or other source of ultravio­let radiation. A family history of cancer and a history of pre­vious oral cancer alert health care providers to be especially observant for signs of cancer.

The nurse assesses the client’s routine oral hygiene regimen and use of dentures or oral appliances, which might add to dis­comfort or mechanically irritate the mucosa. The client should be asked about bleeding, which might indicate an ulcerative le­sion. The nurse determines the status of the client’s past and current appetite and nutritional state, including difficulty with chewing or swallowing. A continuing trend of weight loss may be related to metastasis, heavy alcohol intake, difficulty in eat­ing or chewing, or an underlying disorder.

PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT/CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

An examination of the oral cavity requires adequate lighting for proper visualization. The nurse thoroughly inspects the oral cavity for any lesions, evidence of pain, or restriction of movement. Using a tongue blade, the nurse can visually ex­amine all areas of the oral cavity. The nurse notes any alter­ation in speech attributable to tongue restriction. Following inspection, the advanced-practice nurse uses bimanual palpa­tion of any visible nodules to determine size and fixation. The cervical lymph nodes should also be palpated (Figure 54-2).


RADIOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

The purpose of radiologic diagnostic tests for cancer of the oral cavity is to assess the extent and spread of the tumor. Computed tomography (CT) scans are helpful in determining the extent of the tumor and lymphatic or bone involvement.

 OTHER DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT

Biopsy is the definitive method for diagnosis of oral cancer; therefore the physician obtains a biopsy specimen of the oral tis­sue to assess for malignant or premalignant changes. Incisional biopsies allow for collection of normal and abnormal tissue. An intraoral biopsy can be done with the client under local anesthe­sia. In very small lesions, an excisional biopsy can permit com­plete tumor removal. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is use­ful in detecting perineural involvement and in evaluating thickness in cancers of the tongue. Both CT and MRI can be used to determine metastatic spread to the liver or lungs if fur­ther staging of the disease is warranted.

An aqueous solution of toluidine blue 1% can be applied to oral lesions to determine if they are malignant. This preparation stains malignant lesions, leaving normal tissue unaffected. However, a lesion that is the result of an inflammatory process may also pick up the stain, leading to a false-positive result. Al­though a biopsy is still needed to confirm a cancer diagnosis, toluidine blue may be useful for screening high-risk individuals.


 


PSYCHOSOCIAL ASSESSMENT

The functioning and appearance of the oral cavity are strongly linked with body image and quality of life. Therefore the nurse assesses the impact of oral lesions on the client’s self-concept. In addition, the nurse assesses the client for any ed­ucational or cultural needs regarding instruction or therapy and evaluates the client’s support system and past mecha­nisms of coping.


 CRITICAL THINKING CHALLENGE

 You are a nurse in a busy family practice clinic. A 67-year-old woman comes in for her annual physical examina­tion. In the course of providing her recent health history, she tells you that she has developed several white patches on her tongue “that won’t go away, no matter what I do.”

   What questions would be appropriate for the nurse to ask
this client in gathering more of her health history?

   What aspects of the oral cavity assessment should the
nurse pay particular attention to?


 



Analysis

COMMON NURSING DIAGNOSES AND COLLABORATIVE PROBLEMS

The following are priority nursing diagnoses for clients with malignant tumors of the oral cavity:

1.         Risk for Ineffective Airway Clearance related to obstruc­
tion by the tumor, edema, or secretions

2.         Impaired Oral Mucous Membrane related to effects of
the tumor

 ADDITIONAL NURSING DIAGNOSES AND COLLABORATIVE PROBLEMS

In addition to the commoursing diagnoses, clients with tu­mors of the oral cavity may have one or more of the following:

·         Impaired Verbal Communication related to the tumor or surgery

·         Disturbed Body Image related to impaired oral mucous membrane, surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy Acute Pain related to impaired oral mucous membrane

·         Risk for Infection related to impaired oral mucous membrane


·         Impaired Swallowing related to presence of the oral tu­mor, surgery, or radiation

·         Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body Requirements related to pain and/or edema

Planning and Implementation

 RISK FOR INEFFECTIVE AIRWAY CLEARANCE

PLANNING: EXPECTED OUTCOMES. The client with a malignant tumor of the oral cavity is expected to main­tain a patent airway as evidenced by effective coughing, in­creased air exchange, and the absence of aspiration.

INTERVENTIONS. Extensive tumor involvement and tenacious secretions can impede airway patency. Nursing measures for maintaining airway patency center on assess­ment for dyspnea, inability to cough effectively, or inability to swallow.

NONSURGICAL MANAGEMENT. The nurse assesses for difficulty breathing and/or decreased air exchange and dysphagia. Measures to increase air exchange, remove secre­tions, and prevent aspiration are instituted (Chart 54-3). Clients at risk of aspiration should be fed in small amounts; thickened liquids can be used to prevent gagging.

SURGICAL MANAGEMENT. The client with an oral le­sion may require a tracheostomy preoperatively. This may be due to the extent of surgical excision required to remove the tumor, or it may be due to excessive edema. A tra­cheostomy re-establishes a patent airway and can be per­formed by the physician with the client under local or gen­eral anesthesia. The tracheostomy tube is usually left in place until edema resolves and the airway is patent. If the tu­mor is the major cause of the oral airway blockage, however, the tracheostomy may be maintained through the periopera-tive period until oral healing begins, and in some cases it may be permanent. After postoperative edema resolves, the client is decannulated (the tracheostomy tube is removed). (Refer to Chapter 28 for nursing care of the client with a tracheostomy.)

 


 



 AIRWAY MANAGEMENT. The nurse assesses for dys­pnea resulting from the obstructive presence of the tumor or from excessive secretions. The nurse assesses the quality, rate, and depth of respirations and auscultates the lungs for de­creased or absent ventilation, or for the presence of adventi­tious sounds. If oral secretions are excessive or thick, the nurse attempts to aid the client in expectorating secretions. To increase air exchange, the client is placed in a semi-Fowler’s or high Fowler’s position to maximize ventilation potential. Secretions can be mobilized by encouraging fluids to help liq­uefy secretions, by chest physiotherapy, and by measures to encourage effective coughing. If oral secretions remain prob­lematic, oral suction equipment with a dental tip or a tonsil tip (Yankauer catheter) can be employed.

If edema is associated with oral cavity lesions, the client may receive steroids for reducing inflammation. Antibiotics may be ordered if infection is present, since infection can in­crease inflammation and edema in the lesion. A cool mist sup­plied by a face tent may assist with oxygen transport and con­trol of edema.

 COUGH ENHANCEMENT. Measures that promote deep inhalation generate high intrathoracic pressure, which assists the client in producing an effective cough to mobilize secre­tions. The nurse assists the client to a sitting position with the head slightly flexed and the knees flexed. The nurse then in­structs him or her to take several deep breaths, hold the breath for 2 seconds, and then cough two to three times in succes­sion. He or she is instructed to follow coughing with several maximal inhalation breaths. The client can also be instructed to enhance coughing by inhaling deeply several times and coughing at the end of exhalation.

 ASPIRATION PRECAUTIONS. Aspiration precautions prevent or minimize the risk factors associated with aspira­tion. The nurse assesses the client’s level of consciousness, gag reflex, and ability to swallow. To prevent aspiration, the client is placed upright at 90 degrees (high Fowler’s position). As a precaution, suction equipment should be kept nearby.



IMPAIRED ORAL MUCOUS MEMBRANE

PLANNING: EXPECTED OUTCOMES. The client with a malignant tumor of the oral cavity is expected to main­tain or re-establish oral mucosal integrity.

INTERVENTIONS. Both the presence of tumors of the oral cavity and the effects of treatment of oral tumors pose threats to the integrity of the oral mucosa. Oral cavity lesions can be treated by surgical excision, by nonsurgical treatments such as radiation or chemotherapy, or by a combination of treatments (referred to as multimodal therapy), which is the most expensive treatment option (see the Cost of Care box be­low). Nursing interventions focus primarily on the restoration and maintenance oral health.

NONSURGICAL MANAGEMENT. The purpose of non-surgical management is to promote tissue healing and to main­tain and promote oral hygiene for the client with oral lesions.

ORAL CARE. The nurse works with the client to establish an oral hygiene routine. Ideally, oral hygiene is performed every 2 hours for ulcerated lesions or infection, or in the im­mediate postoperative period. Modifications might be needed because of oral discomfort, bleeding, or edema. Oral care with a soft-bristled toothbrush is preferred. In the event of a fall in the platelet count below 40,000/mm3, the client should be switched to an ultrasoft “chemobrush.” The use of tooth-ettes or a disposable foam brush is discouraged because these products may not adequately control bacteremia-promoting plaque (Toth et al., 1995)(see the Evidence-Based Practice for Nursing box at right). Lubricant can be applied to moisten the lips and oral mucosa as needed.

Clients with ulcerative or bleeding lesions should avoid us­ing commercial mouthwashes and lemon-glycerin swabs. Commercial mouthwashes contain alcohol, and lemon-glycerin swabs are acidic. These substances can cause a burning sensation and contribute to drying of the oral mucous membranes. The nurse encourages frequent rinsing of the mouth with sodium bicarbonate solution, warm saline, or hydrogen perox­ide solution (see also Chart 54-2).

 

COST OF CARE

ORAL CAVITY PROBLEMS Cost of Care

   The cost of medical-surgical care for clients with oral can­
cer in the United States is thought to be approximately $3.7
billion.

   The variables identified as being significantly associated with
treatment costs are TNM stage, single-modality treatment
versus multimodality treatment, and comorbidity grade.

   The majority of costs are incurred during the treatment
phase.

Implications for Nursing

The majority of the costs associated with oral cavity cancer care are incurred during treatment, especially if treatment in­volves a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. Measures to permit early identification and treatment of the disease at a stage where single-modality treatment can be used more effectively would yield substantial decreases in management costs. Client education about the risk factors for oral cancer plus rigorous assessment of those with high-risk profiles (e.g., heavy alcohol and tobacco use) would be cost-effective in reducing the incidence and permitting early diag­nosis and treatment of the disease.


 

RADIATION THERAPY. Radiation therapy has been used alone, as well as in conjunction with surgery and chemother­apy, in the treatment of cancer of the oral cavity. The goal of radiation therapy is tumor eradication while preserving func­tion and appearance. There are several ways to apply radio­therapy. In collaboration with the client, the physician chooses the best mode on the basis of the tumor site and staging.

Radiation therapy for oral cancers can be given by external beam or interstitial implantation. External beam radiation passes through the skin or mucous membrane to the tumor site. Typically, treatments are given as five daily treatments per week over a 6- to 9-week period. Special precautions are taken to minimize the dose of radiation to the brain or spinal cord. Another option is the implantation of radioactive sub­stances (interstitial radiation therapy) to either boost the dosage or deliver a radiation dose close to the tumor bed. This form of implant therapy can be curative in early-stage lesions in the floor of the mouth or anterior tongue, or to add an additional boost of radiation to a tumor that received external beam radiation.

 

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE

FOR NURSING

Do foam swabs work as welt as toothbrushes to remove dental plaque?

Pearson, L. (1996). A comparison of the ability of foam swabs and toothbrushes to remove dental plaque: Implications for nursing practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23,62-69.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a toothbrush and a foam swab in the removal of dental plaque over a 6-day period. Three experiments were conducted using the mouth of the author and a volunteer. A plaque scoring sys­tem was used to quantify the amount of plaque left on teeth adjacent to periodontal tissue. Plaque amounts were mea­sured at the gum-tooth margin (gingival crevice plaque) and between teeth (approximal plaque).

At the end of 6 days, the ability of the toothbrush to remove plaque was noted to be superior to that of the foam swab; the toothbrush usually achieved complete removal of all visible plaque from the sites examined. The sites cleansed by the foam swabs revealed remaining plaque after using the “scrubbing” or “swabbing” technique outlined. When plaque was allowed to accumulate over a 6-day period, similar results were obtained. This study suggests that toothbrush use is more effective than foam swabs in removing plaque, but re­sults could be impacted by user technique.

Critique. The very small sample size (2), as well as the use of the researcher as a study subject, may have permitted bias to be introduced into this study. It is also unclear who as­signed the plaque scores to the study subjects. However, as nursing builds knowledge for evidence-based practice, the ef­ficiency and utility of using these two mouth cleansing modal­ities need further examination.

Implications for Nursing. Nurses need to consider the aim of the intervention in selecting an instrument for mouth care. If the aim is to hydrate oral mucosa, a foam swab will deliver moisture to the tissues in an adequate fashion. Also, if dam­age to fragile oral mucosal tissue is a concern, a foam swab causes minimal damage. However, if removal of dental debris is the aim of mouth care, then the selection of a toothbrush appears to be more appropriate. This becomes important, since controlling plaque is a concern for those clients who may be immunocompromised (the overgrowth and invasion of organisms from plaque can be of concern).


 

 Interstitial radiation is used for smaller lesions that do not infiltrate surrounding tissues. The following can be radioac­tive materials:

·         Seeds, which are permanently implanted into the tissue (usually for tumors unable to be completely excised, or ieck nodes)

·         Needles or wires, which are extracted at the end of therapy

·         Radiation catheters or holders, which are loaded with ra­dioactive materials

·         A “mold” of radioactive material placed directly over the lesion for a specific time

The dose of interstitial therapy is often difficult to calculate. With the exception of radioactive seeds, which have a low level of activity, clients receiving interstitial radiation are usu­ally hospitalized for the duration of treatment. Radiation iso­lation precautions must be instituted while the materials are active or in place. A tracheostomy may be required with in­terstitial implants because of edema and increased oral secre­tions. (See Chapter 25 for nursing care of clients undergoing radiation therapy.)

CRITICAL THINKING

The white patches on your client’s tongue have been di­agnosed as leukoplakia. In addition, a biopsy performed on a nodule located on the floor of the mouth was determined to be squamous cell carcinoma. The client is preparing to undergo surgical excision and adjunctive treatment with radiation.

   What should the nurse include in the preoperative teaching
for this client?

   What complications from the treatment is this client at risk
for?

   What measures should the nurse include in the oral hygiene
care for this client?

CHEMOTHERAPY. The client may receive one or more chemotherapeutic agents (Table 54-3). The advantages of chemotherapy instead of, or as an adjunct to, surgery or radi­ation for cancer of the oral cavity continue to be evaluated.

Recent trials have been conducted on the use of two indi­vidual agents—mitomycin and cisplatin—to prevent local re­currence and improve survival. Response rates have varied from 0% to 30% (Vikram, 1998; Witt, 1998). The nurse in­structs the client undergoing chemotherapy about the antici­pated side effects of the medication, which vary with each agent. The nurse administers antiemetic medications as pre­scribed and provides other comfort measures as needed.

SURGICAL MANAGEMENT. The physician can often ex­cise small, noninvasive lesions of the oral cavity in an ambulatory setting with local anesthesia. The surgical defect is usu­ally small enough to be closed by sutures. These smaller le­sions are also responsive to carbon dioxide laser therapy or cryotherapy (extreme cold application), which can be per­formed as an ambulatory care procedure in a surgical center (but may require general anesthesia).


Small oral cancers are equally responsive to radiation ther­apy and to surgery. More invasive lesions (stage III and IV) require more extensive surgical excision and result in a greater loss of function and disfigurement. Not all lesions can be excised by the peroral approach (through the mouth). The goal of surgical resection is the removal of the tumor with a surgical margin that is free of tumor involvement.

PREOPERATIVE CARE. Before excision of a lesion of the oral cavity, the nurse assesses and documents the client’s level of understanding of the disease process, the rationale for the surgery, and the planned intervention. Information is rein­forced as needed. The nurse identifies family members or other caregivers and includes them in health teaching.

For small, local excisions, postoperative restrictions in­clude a liquid diet for a day, then soft foods. There are no ac­tivity limitations, and postoperative analgesics are prescribed. The nurse instructs the client undergoing large surgical re­sections about the following:

·         The placement of a temporary tracheostomy for approx­imately 10 days and the concomitant nursing care (oxy­gen therapy and suctioning)

·         Temporary loss of speech due to the tracheostomy

·         The need for vital signs to be taken frequently postoperatively

·         The need to take nothing by mouth (remain on NPO sta­tus) for 10 to 14 days until intraoral suture lines are healed

·         The need to have IV lines in place for medication deliv­ery and hydration

·         Postoperative medications and activity (out of bed on the first postoperative day)

·         Any surgical drains

·         The nurse also assesses the client’s ability to read and write. The client and nurse select the method of communica­tion to use postoperatively with staff and family members (e.g., Magic Slate, picture board, or pad and pencil).

OPERATIVE PROCEDURES. Three factors influence the type of surgery performed for oral cancers: the size and loca­tion of the tumor, tumor invasion into the bone, and the pres­ence of metastasis to neck lymph nodes (Olsen, 1999). Small tumors (2 cm or less) located near the mouth opening can be excised periorally (inside the mouth). Otherwise, an external approach may be used. The surgeon may approach the oral cavity from under the mandible or may split the lower lip and retract the lips and cheek for exposure. The mandible is occa­sionally split as well and pushed aside for oral access; it is wired at the end of the operation. The most extensive oral op­erations are composite resections, which combine partial or total glossectomy (tongue removal) and partial mandibulec-tomy. In the commando (co-mandible) procedure, the surgeon excises a segment of the mandible with the oral lesion, usu­ally in conjunction with a radical neck dissection (see Chap­ter 29). If the anterior mandible is resected to treat tumor in­vasion in that area, the mandible is reconstructed after the resection to decrease speech and swallowing problems post-operatively and improve appearance. For clients undergoing a complete glossectomy, a prosthesis will be necessary to aid in swallowing and speech.

Metastasis to cervical lymph nodes usually indicates a poor prognosis for clients with cancer of the oral cavity. In clients with cervical node metastasis, a neck dissection may also be performed. A radical neck dissection involves the re­moval of submental; submandibular; upper, mid, and lower jugular; and posterior triangular levels of the cervical lymph nodes, along with cranial nerve XI, the internal jugular vein, and the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Modified and selective neck dissections may be done in individuals with minimal lymph node involvement.

POSTOPERATIVE CARE. Postoperative care of the client with cancer of the oral cavity focuses on airway management as a priority. The client will have a temporary tracheostomy placed, requiring intensive nursing care to promote airway clearance. In addition, care must be taken to protect the surgi­cal incision site from mechanical damage and infection. Nurs­ing interventions to relieve pain or discomfort and promote nutrition are also important.

Maintaining Airway Patency. After extensive excision or resection, the most important nursing intervention is main­taining airway patency. The client may not recall on awaken­ing from anesthesia that a tracheostomy tube is in place and may initially panic because of the inability to speak. The nurse reminds the client why he or she cannot speak and pro­vides reassurance that the vocal cords are intact (unless a to­tal laryngectomy has been performed, then the loss of voice is permanent). The nurse provides the client with the predeter­mined method of communication.

Nursing interventions are aimed at keeping the temporary tracheostomy patent. Frequent suctioning, using sterile tech­nique, may be required for excessive secretions. Humidified oxygen may be ordered to help liquefy secretions in the early postoperative phase. After the immediate postoperative phase, the client may be able to cough effectively enough to decrease the need for suctioning. After oral edema has decreased and the tracheostomy tube has been changed to a noncuffed type, the client can speak by plugging the stoma with the fingertip. The nurse and physician determine the appropriateness of in­structing the client in this technique. (See Chapter 28 for care of the client with a tracheostomy.)

When the client has been determined to have an adequate airway through the areodigestive tract and can effectively clear secretions by coughing, the tracheostomy tube is re­moved. An airtight dressing is placed over the tracheostomy site, and the incision heals without the need for sutures. The client is instructed to press fingers over the dressing to prevent the incision from separating during coughing (Reese, 1996). Clients who have undergone extensive resection may have slurred speech or difficulty in speaking. The nurse assesses the need for consultation with a speech/language pathologist.

Protecting the Operative Area. The surgical incision site requires careful attention to avoid infection. The nurse or assistive nursing personnel provides gentle mouth care for cleaning away thick secretions and stimulating the flow of saliva. The delivery of oral care depends on the nature and ex­tent of the surgical procedure. Oral care should be provided every 4 hours in the early postoperative phase. The presence of unusual odors from the mouth can indicate infection. In the early postoperative phase, care must be taken to avoid disrup­tion of the suture line during oral hygiene.

The nurse elevates the head of the bed to at least 30 de­grees to assist in decreasing edema by gravity. If skin grafting was done, the nurse inspects the donor site (generally on the anterior thigh) during every nursing shift for bleeding or man­ifestations of infection. (See Chapter 29 for specific nursing care of the client with a radical neck dissection.)

Relieving Pain. To provide optimal pain relief in the post­operative period, the nurse relies on subjective and objective data to assess the need for analgesics and the effectiveness of the medications given. The goal of pain medication during this pe­riod is relief of pain while allowing the client to function at an optimal level. Clients who have undergone surgery for oral car­cinomas describe their pain as throbbing or pounding. IV mor­phine is usually the initial postoperative pain medication given. Oral acetaminophen combined with codeine (Tylenol with Codeine) may be used for systemic relief of moderate pain.

Promoting Nutrition. Clients who have undergone exten­sive resections of the oral cavity remain on NPO status for 5 to 7 days or longer. This allows healing in the oral cavity be­fore food contacts the incision. Nasogastric feeding or total parenteral nutrition is needed during this time (see Chapter 61). The tubes are usually inserted in the operating room.

When oral fluid intake is begun, the nurse assesses for and documents difficulty in swallowing, aspiration, or leakage of saliva or fluids from the suture line. Nursing care should also in­clude the monitoring of weight and hydration. Nutritional sup­plementation may be used to improve the client’s quality of life (see the Legal/Ethical Issues in Health Care box below). Clients experiencing weight loss or having difficulty maintaining hy­dration may be candidates for gastrostomy tube placement.

A speech/language pathologist is often consulted to assist with swallowing techniques. A swallowing impairment may be temporary or permanent. The client is encouraged to per­form swallowing exercises.

egal/Ethical

NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTATION IN CLIENTS UNDERGOING RADIATION TREATMENTS

Maintaining optimal nutritional status for individuals with oral carcinoma is a difficult task, considering the many aspects of digestion impacted by the disease and treatment. Radiation therapy can pose additional challenges to nutrition because of the decreased saliva flow and alterations in taste that can re­sult. Not only does increasing evidence point to nutritional status as a predictor of overall survival, but the ability to eat and enjoy food is an important component of quality of life.

The purpose of the study by McCarthy and Weihofen (1999) was to describe the effect of nutritional supplements on the food intake of clients undergoing radiotherapy. Forty clients beginning external beam radiation therapy were given weekly dietary counseling. The daily food intake was recorded 3 days per week for 4 weeks. One half of the subjects were assigned to ingest a nutritional supplement between meals and at bed­time. Findings suggested that those who ingested the nutri­tional supplements significantly increased their total caloric and protein intake while not reducing their food-derived caloric and protein intake. Based on this study, the addition of nutritional supplements to the normal food intake for clients undergoing radiotherapy for the treatment of oral cancer may be a viable option in helping to maintain adequate nutrition.



 Community-Based Care

Continuing care for the client with an oral tumor depends on the severity of the tumor, the treatment for the tumor, and avail­able support systems. Most clients are maintained at home dur­ing follow-up care. Ongoing nutritional management remains a vital part of the treatment plan. In addition, the short- and long-term effects of the treatment for cancers of the oral cavity must be monitored once the client is discharged home.

HOME CARE MANAGEMENT

If radiation therapy is part of the client’s treatment plan, home care considerations include preparatory information and management strategies. Complications due to radiation to the head or neck can be acute or delayed. Acute effects in­clude treatment-related mucositis, stomatitis, and alterations in taste. Long-term effects such as xerostomia (excessive mouth dryness) and dental decay require ongoing oral care, the use of saliva substitutes, and follow-up dental visits. Al­though ongoing dental care is important, the possible adverse effects that radiation has on the cellular elements of the bone make elective oral surgical procedures, such as tooth extrac­tion, impossible in the area of the radiation. Fatigue, which can be either short or long term, is a common side effect of radiation and chemotherapy.

The client whose tracheostomy has been removed is often taking a soft diet by mouth before discharge. Occasionally, however, clients are discharged from the hospital while still requiring tracheostomy suction, oral suction, and nasogastric feedings. Suction equipment, nutritional supplies, and nursing care can be provided by home care companies. (See Chapter 61 for home care preparation for the client receiving home parenteral nutrition and Chapter 28 for home care preparation for the client with a tracheostomy.)

 

K   HEALTH TEACHING

The nurse instructs the client and family about medications, diet or feedings, any treatments (such as tracheostomy care, suture line care, and dressing changes), and early symptoms of infection.

Alterations in taste and dysphagia make maintaining ade­quate nutritional status a challenge. Alterations in taste occur when the taste buds are included in the radiation treatment field. Taste sensation begins to return several weeks after the completion of treatment. Changes in taste include aversions for meat, such as beef or pork, and metallic tastes in the mouth. Clients can be taught to add seasonings to foods, to use gravies or sauces to make foods more palatable, and to use high-protein foods such as cheeses, milk, eggs, puddings, and legumes in place of meat. Clients with dysphagia are instructed in swal­lowing exercises. Thickened liquids are recommended, since thin liquids, such as water, are difficult to control during swal­lowing. In collaboration with the dietitian, the nurse instructs the client and family on how to assess the nutritional intake of the client who is just beginning to eat. Liquid dietary supple­ments are usually recommended at this time. If bleeding is a problem, or if mucositis is present, a diet of soft foods that will not cause injury to the mucous membranes is preferred.

The nurse instructs the client and/or family members to in­spect the oral cavity daily for areas of redness, indicating the on­set of mucositis, or for lesions indicative of stomatitis. Meticu­lous oral hygiene should be continued in the postoperative phase, especially if adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation is planned or underway. The nurse reinforces the oral hygiene rou­tine, putting particular emphasis on the need for frequent rinsing of the oral cavity to reduce the number of microorganisms and maintain hydration. The client should use a chemobrush, should rinse the chemobrush with hydrogen peroxide and water fol­lowing each use, and should change chemobrushes weekly.

If the salivary glands were part of the radiation field, the client is instructed in the daily use of a fluoride gel to prevent dental caries. A 1% sodium fluoride gel is placed in a cus­tomized applicator that completely covers the tooth surface. This applicator is worn for 10 minutes daily. Saliva produc­tion is greatly reduced as a consequence of radiation. The re­sulting xerostomia results in the inability to eat dry foods. The nurse instructs the client in the use of saliva substitutes.

Skin reactions are also a common side effect of radiation. The nurse should instruct the client to avoid sun exposure, to avoid perfumed lotions or powders, and to cleanse the face or neck area with a gentle, nondeodorant soap.

To increase retention of the information, the client and the family demonstrate the skills they are taught. The nurse eval­uates and documents their understanding of the treatments.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR OLDER ADULTS

 For the older client with metastatic or invasive oral can­cer, skilled home care or nursing home services are required for pain management, nutrition maintenance, and emotional support. Older adults often take subtherapeutic doses of anal­gesics for fear of becoming addicted. The home care nurse teaches the client about the need to promote comfort to im­prove nutrition and prevent depression. Chart 54-4 summa­rizes the focused nursing assessment for the older adult with oral cancer. (See Chapter 7 for further information on pain management in older adults.)


 



  HEALTH CARE RESOURCES

Clients who have undergone composite resection often require community services, because they have both physical and psy-chosocial needs. Clients who have undergone surgical excision experience depression related to a change in body image. Ex­cision of a portion of the mandible can leave a facial defect that may be difficult to hide. A social worker or other health care professional may be needed for client and family coun­seling. Clients who have undergone a total glossectomy may be able to speak with special training and the use of an intra-oral prosthesis fashioned by a maxillofacial prosthodontist. The prosthesis is similar to dentures, with augmentation to ap­proximate the oral articulating surfaces.

FOCUSED ASSESSMENT of  The Older Adult with Oral Cancer

·         Assess the mouth and surrounding tissues for candiadiasis, mucositis, pain, and loss of appetite and taste.

·         Monitor the client’s weight.
Monitor nutritional and fluid intake.

·         Assess for difficulty in eating or speech.

·         Assess pain status and measures used to control pain.
Monitor the client’s response to medications.

·         Identify psychosocial problems, such as depression, anx­iety, and fear.



The nurse consults the social worker or case manager for as­sistance in obtaining special equipment or nutritional resources required by the client at home. The case manager assesses the financial needs of the client and makes referrals to government, community, and religious organizations as needed.


 


 


 Evaluation: Outcomes

The nurse evaluates the care of the client with a malignant tumor of the oral cavity on the basis of the identified nursing diagnoses and collaborative problems. The expected out­comes include that the client:

·         Maintains a patent oral airway through removal of oral secretions

·         Maintains nutritional status by eating foods that are well tolerated and nutritious

·         Communicates thoughts and feelings to family mem­bers, friends, and health care personnel

·         Maintains the integrity of the oral mucous membrane

DISORDERS OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS

 Acute Sialadenitis

OVERVIEW

Acute sialadenitis, the inflammation of a salivary gland, can be caused by infectious agents, irradiation, or immunologic disor­ders. Salivary gland inflammation can have a bacterial or viral etiology. Acute sialadenitis can be caused by infection with cy-tomegalovirus (CMV). The most common bacterial organisms are Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus pyogenes, Strepto­coccus pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli. This disorder most commonly affects the parotid or submandibular gland in adults.

A decrease in the production of saliva (as in dehydrated or debilitated clients or in those who are on NPO status postop-eratively for an extended time) usually precipitates acute sialadenitis. The bacteria or viruses enter the gland through the ductal opening in the oral cavity. Systemic medications, such as phenothiazines, chloramphenicol, and oxytetracy-cline, can also precipitate an episode of acute sialadenitis. Un­treated infections of the salivary glands can evolve into ab­scesses, which can rupture and spread infection into the tissues of the neck and the mediastinum.

Clients who receive radiation for the treatment of cancers of the head and neck or thyroid may develop decreased sali­vary flow, predisposing them to acute or persistent sialadeni­tis. The effect of radiation on the salivary glands is rapid and dose related (Mandel & Mandel, 1999; McEwen & Sanchez, 1997). Immunologic disorders such as HIV infection can cause enlargement of the parotid gland that can be due to sec­ondary infection. Sjdgren’s syndrome, an autoimmune disor­der, is characterized by chronic salivary gland enlargement and inflammation (see Chapter 21).

 

 COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT

Assessment

During the initial interview, the nurse assesses for any predis­posing factors for sialadenitis, such as ionizing radiation to the head or neck area. The nurse asks about systemic illnesses such as HIV infection and collects a thorough medication history.

The presence of dehydration can be noted by assessing the oral cavity and the skin for turgor. Other assessment findings include pain and swelling of the face over the affected gland. Cranial nerve function is tested, since the branches of the fa­cial nerve lie close to the salivary glands. Fever and general malaise also occur, and purulent drainage can often be mas­saged from the affected duct in the oral cavity (Chart 54-5).

 


 Interventions

Collaborative management includes the administration of IV fluids and measures such as the following to treat the under­lying cause and increase the flow of saliva:

    Hydration

    Application of warm compresses

    Massage of the gland

    Use of a saliva substitute

    Use of sialagogues (substances that stimulate the flow of saliva)

Sialagogues include lemon slices and fruit- or citrus-flavored candy. Massage is accomplished by milking the ede-matous gland with the fingertips toward the ductal opening. Elevation of the head of the bed promotes gravity drainage of the edematous gland.

Acute sialadenitis is best prevented by adherence to rou­tine oral hygiene. This practice prohibits infections from as­cending to the salivary glands from the oral cavity.

Postirradiation Sialadenitis

The salivary glands are sensitive to ionizing radiation, such as from radiation therapy or radioactive iodine treatment of thy­roid cancers. Exposure of the glands to radiation produces xe­rostomia (very dry mouth caused by severe reduction in the flow of saliva) within 24 hours. Radiation to the salivary glands can also produce pain and edema, which generally abate after several days.

Xerostomia may be temporary or permanent, depending on the dose of radiation and the percentage of total salivary gland tissue irradiated. Little can be done to relieve the client’s dry mouth during the course of radiation therapy. Frequent sips of water and frequent mouth care, especially before meals, are the most effective interventions. After the course of radiation therapy has been completed, saliva substitutes may provide moisture for 2 to 4 hours at a time. Over-the-counter solutions are available, or solutions may be mixed with methylcellulose (Cologel), glycerin, and saline.

Salivary Gland Tumors

OVERVIEW

Tumors of the salivary glands are relatively rare; they constitute 5% of all oral tumors. Initially they present as slow-growing, painless masses (McEwen & Sanchez, 1997). Malignant tu­mors are characterized by more rapid growth than that of benign tumors and are generally associated with pain. Involve­ment of the facial nerve, more common with malignant tumors, results in facial weakness or paralysis (partial or total) on the affected side. Needle aspiration biopsy and open biopsy are useful procedures in establishing a diagnosis.


 


 

KEY FEATURES of  Sialadenitis

·         Swelling on the sides of the face or under the tongue, which increases when the client eats

·         Alteration in the quantity or appearance of saliva

·         Pain, especiatty during eating

·         Purulent drainage from the affected duct



 COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT

 Assessment

The nurse collects information concerning prior radiation ex­posure, since radiation to the head and neck areas is associ­ated with the occurrence of salivary gland tumors. Salivary gland malignancies present as localized, firm masses. In ad­vanced stages of salivary gland tumors, the nurse may note a large preauricular mass accompanied by facial nerve paraly­sis. Submandibular and minor salivary gland tumors may be tender or painful. Tumor invasion of the hypoglossal nerve causes impaired movement of the tongue, and a loss of sensa­tion can follow. The nurse pays particular attention to assess­ment of the facial nerve because of its close proximity to the salivary glands. The nurse assesses the client’s ability to:

    Wrinkle the brow

    Raise the eyebrows

    Squeeze the eyes shut

    Wrinkle the nose

    Pucker the lips

    Puff out the cheeks

    Grimace or smile

 Interventions

The treatment of choice for both benign and malignant tumors of the salivary glands is surgical excision. However, radiation therapy is often used for salivary gland cancers that are large, have recurred, show evidence of residual disease after exci­sion, or are highly malignant.

Clients who have undergone parotidectomy (surgical re­moval of the parotid glands) or submandibular gland surgery are at risk for weakness or loss of function of the facial nerve because the nerve courses directly through the gland. Facial nerve repair with autogenous nerve grafting can be done at the time of surgery. The majority of studies support combining surgery with postoperative radiation for advanced disease.

 

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