LESSON 14
SELF-EDUCATION
Theme: Self-Education.
v The notion of education.
v Stages of education.
v Didactics as theory of education in high school.
v Learning, basic principles of learning.
v Learning in different age groups.
v Learning theory.
v Teaching process, ist components.
v Technology as indispensible teaching tool.
Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Education was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters.
Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Education was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in
EDUCATION is THE PREROGATIVE OF MAN. To man must be reserved the noble term education. Training suffices for animals, and cultivation for plants. Man alone is susceptible of education, because he alone is capable of governing himself, and of becoming a moral being. An animal, through its instincts, is all that it can be, or at least all that it has need of being. But man, in order to perfect himself, has need of reason and reflection; and as at birth he does not himself possess these qualities, he must be brought up by other men.
Is THERE A SCIENCE OP EDUCATION? No one doubts, today, the possibility of a science of education. Education is itself an art, skill embodied in practice; and this art certainly supposes something besides the knowledge of a few rules learned from books. It requires experience, moral qualities, a certainwarmth of heart, and a real inspiration of intelligence. There can be no education without an educator, any more than poetry without a poet, that is, without some one who by his personal qualities vivifies and applies the abstract and lifeless laws of treatises on education. But, just as eloquence has its rules derived from rhetoric, and poetry its rules derived from poetics; just as, in another order of ideas, medicine, which is an art, is based upon the theories of medical science; so education, before being ‘ an art in the hands of the masters who practise it, who enrich it by their versatility and their devotion, who put upon it the impress of their mind and heart, education is a science which philosophy deduces from the general laws of humaature, and which the teacher perfects by inductions from his own experience.
There is, therefore, a science of education, a practical and applied science, which now has its principles and laws, which gives proof of its vitality by a great number of publications.
According to Gabriel Compayer, Pedagogy, so to speak, is the theory of education, and education the practice of pedagogy. Just as one may be a rhetorician without being an orator, so one may be a pedagogue that is, may have a thorough knowledge of the rules of education without being an educator, without having practical skill in the training of children.
DEFINITION OF EDUCATION
It will not be without interest to mention in this place the principal definitions that are of note, either on account of the names of their authors or of the relative exactness of their connotations.
One of the most ancient, and also one of the best, is that of Plato:
“The purpose of education is to give to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable.”
The perfection of humaature, such indeed is the ideal purpose of education. It is in the same sense that Kant, Madame Necker de Saussure, and Stuart Mill have given the following definitions :
“Education is the development in man of all the perfection which his nature permits.”
“To educate a child is to put him in a condition to fulfil as perfectly as possible the purpose of his life.”
“Education includes whatever we do for ourselves and whatever is done for us by others, for the express purpose of bringing us nearer to the perfection of our nature.”
Here it is the general purpose of education which is principally in view. But the term perfection is somewhat vague and requires some explanation. Herbert Spencer’s definition responds in part to this need :
“Education is the preparation for complete living.”
But in what does complete living itself consist? The definitions of German educators give us the reply:
“Education is at once the art and the science of guiding the young and of putting them in a condition, by the aid of instruction, through the power of emulation and good example, to attain the triple end assigned to man by his religious, social, and national destination.” (Niemeyer.)
“Education is the harmonious and equable evolution of the human faculties by a method founded upon the nature of the mind for developing all the faculties of the soul, for stirring up and nourishing all the principles of life, while shunning all one-sided culture and taking account of the sentiments on which the strength and worth of men depend.” (Stein.)
“Education is the harmonious development of the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties.” (Denzel.)
These definitions have the common fault of not throwing into sharper relief the essential character of education properly so called, which is the premeditated, intentional action which the will of a man exercises over the child to instruct and train him. They might be applied equally well to the natural, instinctive, and predetermined development of the human faculties. In this respect we prefer the following formulas:
“Education is the process by which one mind forms another mind, and one heart another heart.” (Jules Simon.)
“Education is the sum of the intentional actions by means of which man attempts to raise his fellows to perfection.” (
“Education is the sum of the efforts whose purpose is to give to man the complete possession and correct use of his different faculties.” (Henry Joly.)
Kant rightly demanded that the purpose of education should be to train children, not with reference to their success in the present state of human society, but with reference to a better state possible in the future, in accordance with an ideal conception of humanity. We must surely assent to these high and noble aspirations, without forgetting, however, the practised aims of educational effort. It is in this sense that James Mill wrote :
“The end of education is to render the individual as much as possible an instrument of happiness, first to himself, and next to other beings.”
Doubtless this definition is incomplete, but it has the merit of leading us back to the practical realities and the real conditions of existence. The word happiness is the utilitarian translation of the word perfection. A lofty idealism should not make us forget that the human being aspires to be happy, and that happiness is also a part of his destination. Moreover, without losing sight of the fact that education is above all else the disinterested development of the individual, of one’s personality, it is well that the definition of education should remind us that we do not live solely for ourselves, for our own single and selfish perfection, but that we also live for others, and that our existence is subordinate to that of others.
What are we to conclude from this review of so many different definitions? First, that their authors have often complicated them by the introduction of various elements foreign to the exact notion of the word education, and that it would perhaps be better to be satisfied to say, with Rousseau, for the sake of uniting simply on the sense of the word, ” Education is the art of bringing up children and of forming men.” But if we are determined to include in the definition of education the determination of the subject upon which it acts and the object which it pursues, we shall find the elements of such a conception here and there in the different formulas which we have quoted. It would suffice to bring them together and to say:
“Education is the sum of the reflective efforts by which we aid nature in the development of the physical, 1 intellectual, and moral faculties of man, in view of his perfection, his happiness, and his social destination.” Gabriel Compayer
Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgment and well-developed wisdom.
Education encompasses both the teaching and learning of knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency. It thus focuses on the cultivation of skills, trades or professions, as well as mental, moral & aesthetic development.
Formal education consists of systematic instruction, teaching and training by professional teachers. This consists of the application of pedagogy and the development of curricula. In a liberal education tradition, teachers draw on many different disciplines for their lessons, including psychology, philosophy, linguistics, biology, and sociology. Teachers in specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or zoology may teach only in a narrow area, usually asprofessors at institutions of higher learning.
The right to education is a fundamental human right. Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations‘ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.
Systems of formal education
Educational systems are established to provide education and training, often for children and the youth. A curriculum defines what students should know, understand and be able to do as the result of education. A teaching profession delivers teaching which enables learning, and a system of policies, regulations, examinations, structures and funding enables teachers to teach to the best of their abilities. Sometimes education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge, which is known as social engineering. This can lead to political abuse of the system, particularly in totalitarian states and government.
· Education is a broad concept, referring to all the experiences in which students can learn something.
· Instruction refers to the intentional facilitating of learning toward identified goals, delivered either by an instructor or other forms.
· Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student.
· Training refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.
2. Stages of education
Primary education
Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or seven years of schooling starting at the age of 5 or 6, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separatemiddle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education,are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.
Secondary education
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during adolescence. It is characterised by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, “post-secondary”, or “higher” education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the
Higher education
The
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduateand postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both theundergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.
Adult education
Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
3. Didactics as theory of education in high school
DIDACTICS
The word is from the Greek didaktikós, “apt at teaching.”
Didactics is the theory of teaching and, in a wider sense, the theory and practical application of teaching and learning. In demarcation from mathematics, as the science of learning, didactics refers only to the science of teaching.
Etymology of the English word didactic
the English word didactic
derived from the Greek word didaktikos
, διδακτικός (instructive (‘didactic’))
derived from the Greek word didaktos, διδακτός (instructed, or communicated by teaching)
Date
The earliest known usage of didactic in English dates from the 17th century.
Cognates
4. Learning, basic principles of learning
· Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.
· Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
· Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
Providing the Conditions for Learning
Young ones are most likely to learn when . . .
5. Learning in Different Age Groups
Japanese high school students wearing the “sailor” uniform
Representation of a university class, 1350s.
Brothers studying together in a homeschool environment.
Behaviorism
There are two types of possible conditioning:
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Informal and post-modern theories
Other learning theories
Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in learning.
A Biological Analogy to Learning Theory Classification
7. Teaching process, its components
Pedagogy, literally translated, is the art or science of teaching children. In modern day usage, it is a synonym for “teaching” or “education,” particularly in scholarly writings. Throughout history, educators and philosophers have discussed different pedagogical approaches to education, and numerous theories and techniques have been proposed. Educators use a variety of research and discussion about learning theories to create their personal pedagogy, and are often faced with the challenge of incorporating new technology into their teaching style. Successful education for all depends on teachers being able to embrace both the art and science of pedagogy, acting as “parents” who understand the needs, abilities, and experiences of their students while also being trained in the best methods of communication and presentation of appropriate materials.
Curriculum
Autodidacticism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
“Autodidact” redirects here. For the 1997 rock album, see Autodidact (album).
“Self-taught” redirects here. For the hip hop group, see Self Taught.
“Self-taught learner” redirects here. For the 2009 pop rock album, see Self-Taught Learner.
Renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vinci is one of history’s best known autodidacts.
Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) or self-education is self-directed learning that is related to but different from informal learning. In a sense, autodidacticism is “learning on your own” or “by yourself”, and an autodidact is a self-teacher. Autodidacticism is a contemplative, absorptive procession. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one’s life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts.
Autodidactism is only one facet of learning, and is usually, but not necessarily, complemented by learning in formal and informal spaces: from classrooms to other social settings. Many autodidacts seek instruction and guidance from experts, friends, teachers, parents, siblings, and community. Inquiry into autodidacticism has implications for learning theory, educational research, educational philosophy and educational psychology.
Etymology
The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words αὐτός (autós, or “self”) and διδακτικός (didaktikos, meaning “teaching”). The related term Didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education.
Modern education and autodidacticism
Autodidacticism is always a complement of modern education.[1] Armstrong (2012) claimed that in higher education students should be given more materials suitable for self-study. Students should be encouraged to do more independent work.[2] While Leonardo da Vinci was a privileged autodidact, the Industrial Revolution created a new situation. The creation of secular societies allowed many to pursue scientific interests and to develop scientific knowledge through academic or autodidactic learning.[3]
Before the 20th century only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in the
Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until the early 19th century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In
Prior to the 19th century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who had typically received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship.[4] Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being “largely self-educated”.[6] Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society. In the 18th century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications, which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training.
Years of schooling in the
One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students’ individual needs, goals and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding the area. As a form of discovery learning, students in today’s classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to “experience and interact” with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism.
For autodidacts to be successful in their self-teaching, they must possess self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that being able to regulate one’s own learning is something which must be modeled to students, for it is not a natural human tendency for the population at large.[9] In order to interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods.[10] Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making.
The secular and modern societies gave foundations for a new system of education and a new kind of autodidacts. While the number of schools and students raised from one century to the other, so did the number of autodidacts. The industrial revolution produced new educational tools used in schools, universities and outside academic circles to create a post-modern era that gave birth to the World Wide Web and encyclopaedic data banks such as Wikipedia. As this concept becomes more widespread and popular, web locations like Udacity and Khan Academy are developed to be learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together.
Autodidacticism in history, philosophy and literature
The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to the study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan (Alive Son of the Vigilant), who is considered as the quintessential autodidact.[11] The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Abu Baker Ibn-Tufayl in the 1160s,
In the story of African American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine African American’s relationship to literacy during slavery, the Civil War and the first decades of freedom.[12] Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education.
The working-class protagonist of Jack London’s Martin Eden (1909) embarks on a path of self-learning in order to gain the affections of Ruth, a member of cultured society. By the end of the novel,
Jean-Paul Sartre‘s Nausea (1938) depicts, as a secondary character, an autodidact.
In The Ignorant Schoolmaster (1987), Jacques Rancière describes the emancipatory education of Joseph Jacotot, a post-Revolutionary philosopher of education who discovered that he could teach things he did not know. The book is both a history and a contemporary intervention in the philosophy and politics of education, through the concept of autodidacticism; Rancière chronicles Jacotot’s “adventures”, but he articulates Jacotot’s theory of “emancipation” and “stultification” in the present tense.
The 1997 drama film Good Will Hunting follows the story of autodidact Will Hunting, played by Matt Damon. Hunting demonstrates his breadth and depth of knowledge throughout the film, but especially to his therapist and in a heated discussion in a Harvard bar.
On the television show Criminal Minds (2005–present), Supervisory Special Agent Dr. Spencer Reid is an autodidact with an eidetic memory, meaning that he can remember and easily recall almost everything he sees (this, however, only applies to visual information). He holds doctoral degrees in mathematics, chemistry, and engineering. He also holds bachelor degrees in sociology and psychology, and is working on completing another in philosophy. He is known on the show for being a genius; he has an IQ of 187 and is certainly the smartest member of the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Unit stationed at
One of the main characters in The Elegance of the Hedgehog (2006), by Muriel Barbery, is an autodidact. The story is told from the view point of Renee, a middle-aged autodidact concierge in a
In the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, Ekalayva is depicted as a tribal boy who was denied education in the science of arms from royal teachers from the house of Kuru. Ekalavya went to the forest, where he taught himself archery in front of an image of the Kuru teacher, Drona, that he had built for himself. Later, when the royal family found that Ekalavya had practiced with the image of Drona as his teacher, Drona asked for Ekalavya’s thumb as part of his tuition. Ekalavya complied with Drona’s request, thus ending his martial career.
Autodidacticism in architecture
Many successful and influential architects, such as Mies Van Der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright, Violet-Le-Duc, and Tadao Ando were self-taught.
There are very few countries allowing autodidacticism in architecture today. The practice of architecture, or the use of the title: “architect”, are now protected in most countries.
Self-taught architects have generally studied and qualified in other fields such as engineering or arts and crafts. Jean Prouvé was first a structural engineer. Le Corbusier had an academic qualification in decorative arts. Tadao Ando started his career as a draftsman and Eileen Gray studied fine arts.
When a political state starts to implement restrictions on the profession, there are issues related to the rights of established self-taught architects. In most countries the legislation includes a grandfather clause, authorising established self-taught architects to continue practicing. In the
However, other sovereign states made the choice to omit such clause and many established and competent practitioners were stripped of their professional rights.[18] In the Republic of Ireland, a group named “Architects’ Alliance of Ireland” is defending the interests of long-established self-trained architects[19] who were recently deprived from their rights to practice as per Part 3 of the Irish Building Control Act 2007.[20]
Theoretical research such as “Architecture of Change, sustainability and humanity in the built environment[21]” or older studies like “Vers une Architecture” from Le Corbusier describe the practice of architecture as an environment changing with new technologies, sciences and legislations. All architects must be autodidacts to keep up to date with new standards, new regulations, or new methods.
Self-taught architects like Eileen Gray, Luis Barragán and many others, created a system where working is also learning, where self-education is associated with creativity and productivity within a working environment.
While he was primarily interested in naval architecture, William Francis Gibbs learned his profession through his own study of battleships and ocean liners. Through his life he could be seen examining and changing the designs of ships that were already built, that is, until he started Gibbs and Cox.
Future Impact
The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration.[22] As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K-12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have a self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the “teacher” or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format.[23] This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in a given area.
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed, and knowledge and skills retained.[1][2]
Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than the environment, in particular, the complexities of human memory. Humanists emphasize the importance of self-knowledge and relationships in the learning process. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner’s ability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and that the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism, as a learning theory, is based on a change in knowledge through controlled stimulus/response conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an instructor for acquisition of knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate factual knowledge, then observe, measure, and modify behavioral changes in specified direction. This type of learning is a conditioned response or memorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The correct response is achieved through stimulation of senses. The focus of intelligence development is visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, and bodily/kinesthetic intelligence. The purpose in education is to help a learner adopt knowledge from an instructor through use of the learner’s senses. This learning goal is the lowest order learning: factual knowledge, skill development, and training. The term “behaviorism” was coined by John Watson (1878–1959). Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or other subjective experiences was unscientific and insisted that psychology must focus on measurable behaviors.[3] For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.
Conditioning
Both types of conditioning forms the core of Behavior Analysis. It has grown into a popularized practice called Applied behavior analysis.
There are two types of conditioning:
· Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus.
· Operant conditioning, where antecedents follow a behavior which leads to a consequence such as a punishment, reward, or reinforcer.
Classical conditioning was noticed by Ivan Pavlov when he saw that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell, they will produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning regards this form of learning to be the same whether in dogs or in humans.[4]
Operant conditioning reinforces this behavior with antecedents, rewards and typically non-aversive punishments. A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.[5]
Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and will arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives, Competency-based learning, and skill development and training.[6]
Cognitivism
Cognitivism, as a learning theory, is the theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of an individual’s cognitive abilities, such as the mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, reflection, application, creation, understanding, and evaluation. The Cognitivists’ learning process is adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization, and structure to develop internal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses in the brain. The learner requires assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. The purpose in education is to develop conceptual knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving using Verbal/Linguistic and Logical/Mathematical intelligences. The learner requires scaffolding to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The educators’ role is pedagogical in that the instructor must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities. This theory relates to early stages of learning where the learner solves well defined problems through a series of stages.
Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology, developed in
Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.[9] Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short term memory and long term memory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory.[10] They view learning as an internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory and perception) where the educator focuses on building intelligence and cognitive development.[6] The individual learner is more important than the environment.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model[11] and Baddeley’s working memory model[12] were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.[13] Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.
Educational neuroscience
American Universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins,
The integration and application to education of what we know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers stated: “It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum.”[16] What is exciting about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techniques now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the brain as it learns, and the question then arises: can the results of neuro-scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this area?[17] Although the field of neuroscience is young, it is expected that with new technologies and ways of observing learning, the paradigms of what students need and how students learn best will be further refined with actual scientific evidence. In particular, students who may have learning disabilities will be taught with strategies that are more informed.
The differences of opinion and theory in psychology indicate that the learning process is not yet understood.[citation needed] Neuroscience shows that the brain can be modelled not with a central processor where ‘’intelligence’’ lies, but in having perhaps 70 functional areas. Mental activity requires several areas to work together. What appear as different types of intelligence result from different combinations of well-developed functional areas. Learning is a process by which neurons join by developing the synapses between them. Knowledge is arranged hierarchically, with new knowledge being linked to existing neural networks.[citation needed]
Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience. As of 2012, such studies are beginning to support a theory of multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functional areas in the brain, each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner.
Taxonomies
The theory of multiple intelligences is a taxonomy of intelligence that differentiates it into specific (primarily sensory) “modalities”, rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. This model was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner chose eight abilities that he held to meet these criteria: musical–rhythmic, visual–spatial, verbal–linguistic, logical–mathematical, bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. He later suggested that existential and moral intelligence may also be worthy of inclusion.
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of learning objectives that provides a framework for discussing cognitive, affective, and psycho-motor learning.
Humanism
Main article: Humanism (philosophy of education)
Humanism, as a learning theory, is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, and ultimately expertise through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. This self-directed learning is needs motivated, adaptive learning. Acquisition, development, and integration of knowledge occur through strategy, personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision-making. The learning goal is to become self-actualized with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment. This learner is able to adapt prior knowledge to new experience. The educator’s role in humanistic learning is to encourage and enable the learner, andragogically, by providing access to appropriate resources without obtrusive interference. The learning goal is high order learning of procedural knowledge, strategy, reasoning, abstract analysis, and development of expertise. Humanists include Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Marie Montessori, and William Glasser.
Transformative learning
Main article: Transformative learning
Transformative learning focuses upon the often-necessary change that is required in a learner’s preconceptions and world view. Transformative learning seeks to explain how humans revise and reinterpret meaning.[18] Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference.[19] A frame of reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are often involved.[20] Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their particular values, associations and concepts.[19] Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view.[19] Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are harder to change than points of view. Habits of mind influence our point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, but points of view may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.[19] Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others the “reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view.”[19] When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective, and integrative of experience.[19]
Constructivism
Main article: Constructivism (philosophy of education)
Constructivism seeks to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed by experiences. It has its roots in cognitive psychology and biology and an approach to education that lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created in order to adapt to the world. Constructs are the different types of filters we choose to place over our realities to change our reality from chaos to order. Von Glasersfeld describes constructivism as “a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics”.[1] Constructivism has implications for the theory of instruction. Discovery, hands-on, experiential, collaborative, project-based, and task-based learning are a number of applications that base teaching and learning on constructivism.
Constructivism draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development from Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, and building new ideas or concepts based upon current knowledge and past experience. It asks why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. To design effective teaching environments, it believes, one needs a good understanding of what the learners already know when they come into the classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on what the pupil already knows and is allowed to develop with them.[21] Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems.[22] This requires an understanding of human cognitive development.
The learning theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and David Kolb serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory.[23] Constructivism has many varieties: Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building are three, but all versions promote a student’s free exploration within a given framework or structure.[24] The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.
Multimedia Learning
Multimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory teaching materials that may include video, computer and other information technology.[citation needed] Multimedia learning theory focuses on the principles that determine the effective use of multimedia in learning, with emphasis on using both the visual and auditory channels for information processing.
The auditory channel deals with information that is heard, and the visual channel processes information that is seen. The visual channel holds less information than the auditory channel.[citation needed] If both the visual and auditory channels are presented with information, more knowledge is retained. However, if too much information is delivered it is inadequately processed, and long term memory is not acquired. Multimedia learning seeks to give instructors the ability to stimulate both the visual and auditory channels of the learner, resulting in better progress.[25]
Learning Style Theory vs Instructional Theory
Main article: Learning styles
Learning style theory proposes that individuals learn in different ways, that there are four distinct learning styles – feeling, watching, thinking and doing – and that knowledge of a learner’s preferred learning style will lead to faster and more satisfactory improvement.[26] Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes. Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections.
Terms for Instructional theory are diaskagogy, pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy which relate to the maturity (age) of the learner.
Informal and post-modern theories
In theories that make use of cognitive restructuring, an informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of concepts.[27] New knowledge cannot be told to students, it believes, but rather the students’ current knowledge must be challenged. In this way, students will adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.[27] By using this method students gain the broad understanding they’re taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the concept or theory. This theory further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts and the language of a subject should be split into multiple steps.[28]
Other informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning. Intrinsic motivation may create a more self-regulated learner,[29] yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that the average student learning in isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaboration and mediation.[30] Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.[31][32]
Criticism of learning theory
Critics of learning theories that seek to displace traditional educational practices claim that there is no need for such theories; that the attempt to comprehend the process of learning through the construction of theories creates problems and inhibits personal freedom
1. The upbringing of children – http://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/child.htm
2. http://www.thewaytotruth.org/pearls/upbringing.html
3. Principles of Upbringing children – http://www.al-islam.org/upbringing/
4. Moral Education – http://libr.org/isc/issues/ISC23/B8%20Susan%20Devine.pdf
6. Moral Issues – http://www.hi-ho.ne.jp/taku77/
7. Education – http://www.educativ.info/edu/dezvedue.html
