LESSON 8
ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH.
Theme: Adolescence and Youth.
v Adolescence.
v Youth.
v 
Adolescence is the time between the beginning of sexual maturation (puberty) and adulthood. It is a time of psychological maturation, which a person becomes “adult-like” in behavior.
Adolescence is considered to be the period between ages 13 and 19. The adolescent experiences not only physical growth and change, but also emotional, psychological, social, and mental change and growth.
The exact age a child enters puberty depends on a number of different things, such as genes, nutrition, and gender. During puberty, endocrine glands produce hormones that cause body changes and the development of secondary sex characteristics.
· In girls, the ovaries begin to increase production of estrogen and other female hormones.
· In boys, the testicles increase production of testosterone.
The adrenal glands produce hormones that cause increased armpit sweating, body odor, acne, and armpit and pubic hair. This process is called adrenarche. The child will ofteeed an underarm deodorant or antiperspirant during this time.
PUBERTY IN GIRLS
Breast development is the main sign that a girl is entering puberty. The first menstrual period (menarche) usually follows within about 2 years.
Before the first menstrual period, a girl will normally have:
· An increase in height
· An increase in hip size
· Clear or whitish vaginal secretions
· Pubic, armpit, and leg hair growth
Menstrual cycles occur over about 1 month (28 to 32 days). At first, the menstrual periods may be irregular. A girl may go 2 months between periods, or may have two periods in 1 month. Over time, periods become more regular. Keeping track of when the period occurs and how long it lasts can help predict when the next menstrual period will occur.
After menstruation starts, the ovaries begin to produce and release eggs, which have been stored in the ovaries since birth. About every month after menstruation starts, an ovary releases an egg, called an ovum. The egg travels down a Fallopian tube, which connects the ovary to the womb.
When the egg reaches the womb, the lining of the womb becomes thick with blood and fluid. This happens so that if the egg is fertilized, it can grow and develop in the lining to produce a baby. (It is important to remember that fertility comes before emotional maturity, and pregnancy can occur before an adolescent is prepared for parenthood.)
If the egg does not meet with sperm from a male and is not fertilized, it dissolves. The thickened lining falls off and forms menstrual blood flow, which passes out of the body through the vagina. In between the menstrual periods, there may be a clear or whitish vaginal discharge. This is normal.
During or just before each period, the girl may feel moody or emotional, and her body may feel puffy or swollen (bloated). Premenstrual syndrome ( PMS) may begin to develop, especially as the girl gets older.
In girls, puberty is usually finished by age 17. Any increases in height after this age are uncommon. Although a girl has reached full physical maturity at this time, her educational and emotional maturity continue to grow.
PUBERTY IN BOYS
The first sign of puberty in boys is enlargement of both testicles. Afterward, boys will normally experience:
· Faster growth, especially height
· Hair growth under the arms, on the face, and in the pubic area
· Increased shoulder width
· Growth of the penis, scrotum (with reddening and folding of the skin), and testes
· Nighttime ejaculations (nocturnal emissions or “wet dreams”)
· Voice changes
The testes constantly produce sperm. Some sperm can be stored in a structure called the epididymis. Sometimes the stored sperm are released as part of the normal process to make room for new sperm. This can occur automatically during sleep (nocturnal emissions) or following masturbation or sexual intercourse. Nocturnal emissions are a normal part of puberty.
The problem of adolescence is by no means an easy topic to discuss not withstanding that it is so to speak an everyday thing. It is often said that the teenage years are the “best years of one’s life”, In fact Art Linkletter a Canadian born US broadcaster in his book A Childs garden of Misinformation highlighted the beauty of the adolescent years in this famous quote; The four stages of man are infancy, childhood, adolescence, and obsolescence, in his opinion, life became useless after adolescence. As true as these assertions may be, it is ironic to note that this is only part of the picture. Life for many adolescents is a painful tug of war filled with mixed messages and conflicting demands from parents, teachers, friends, family and oneself. Growing up—negotiating a path between independence and reliance on others—is a tough business and that summarizes what we would be discussing here today.
Adolescence (gotten from the latin word adolescere which means; to grow) as defined by the Wikipedia online encyclopedia, is a transitional stage of physical and mental human development that occurs between childhood and adulthood. This transition involves biological (i.e. pubertal), social, and psychological changes, though the biological or physiological ones are the easiest to measure objectively.
The onset of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood vary from country to country but we can generally place adolescents to be persons within the ages of eight and eighteen. NB, Those in the period of adolescence are referred to as adolescents or teenagers or simply as teens.
The period of Adolescence is filled with intellectual and emotional changes in addition to other major biological and physical changes. It is a time of discovery of self and one’s relationship to the world around himself or herself.
Before we delve into the problems of adolescence, let us take some time to note the causes. It is important to the success of our discourse that we first understand what is happening to the teen physically, cognitively, and socially; before looking at how these affects teens.
Physical Development: During adolescence, teens experience rapid physical development at a speed unparalleled since infancy. Physical development includes; rapid increase in height and weight (seen earlier in girls than in boys), the development of secondary sexual characteristics (prominent among which is the onset of menstruation in girls and the growth of pubic hair),a continued brain development.
Cognitive Development: Adolescents usually possess greater thinking skills than infants. These advances in reasoning can be seen in the following areas;
• Developing advanced reasoning skills. These include the ability to think about multiple options and possibilities. It includes a more logical thought process and the ability to think about things hypothetically. It involves asking and answering the question, “what if…?”.
• Developing abstract thinking skills. These means thinking about things that cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Examples include things like faith, trust, beliefs and spirituality.
• Developing the ability to think about thinking in a process known as “meta-cognition.” Meta-cognition allows individuals to think about how they feel and what they are thinking. It involves being able to think about how one is perceived by others. It can also be used to develop strategies, also known as mnemonic devices, for improving learning.
Psycho-Social Development: There are five recognized psychosocial issues that teens deal with during their adolescent years. These include:
• Establishing an identity.
• Establishing autonomy.
• Establishing intimacy.
• Becoming comfortable with one’s sexuality.
• Making achievement.
These issues bring about such changes in youths as; spending more time with their friends than with their family, keeping a diary, locking up their rooms, become involved in multiple hobbies, become more argumentative, would not want to be seen with their parents in public etc.
As a result of these changes which the teen is undergoing, they become vulnerable to many forms of trouble. As adolescents try new behaviors, they become vulnerable to injury, legal consequences, and sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies, traumatic injuries, particularly from car and motorcycle accidents, etc.
We shall then proceed to discuss some of these problems.
BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS
Adolescence is a time for developing independence. Typically, adolescents exercise their independence by questioning their parents’ rules, which at times leads to rule breaking. It is common for once loyal children to begin to grumble when asked to carry out some chores at home and to respond in harsh words when been rebuked by their parents. This is often a challenging time for most parents.
Some parents and their adolescents clash over almost everything. In these situations, the core issue is really control—adolescents want to feel in control of their lives and parents want adolescents to know they still make the rules.
Children occasionally engage in physical confrontation. However, during adolescence, the frequency and severity of violent interactions increase. Although episodes of violence at school are highly publicized, adolescents are much more likely to be involved with violence (or more often the threat of violence) at home and outside of school. Many factors, including developmental issues, gang membership, access to weapons, substance use, and poverty, contribute to an increased risk of violence for adolescents. Of particular concern are adolescents who, in an altercation, cause serious injury or use a weapon.
Because adolescents are much more independent and mobile than they were as children, they are often out of the direct physical control of adults. In these circumstances, adolescents’ behavior is determined by their own moral and behavioral code. The parents guide rather than directly control the adolescents’ actions. Adolescents who feel warmth and support from their parents are less likely to engage in risky behaviors. Also, parents who convey clear expectations regarding their adolescents’ behavior and who demonstrate consistent limit setting and monitoring are less likely to have adolescents who engage in risky behaviors. Authoritative parenting, as opposed to harsh or permissive parenting, is most likely to promote mature behaviors.
Substance abuse is a common trigger of behavioral problems and often requires specific therapy. Behavioral problems may be the first sign of depression or other mental health disorders. Such disorders typically require treatment with drugs as well as counseling. In extreme cases, some adolescents may also need legal intervention in the form of probation which is not so common in
UNWANTED PREGNANCY AND SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)
This is as much a problem for the male adolescent as it is for the female but generally, the girls stand a greater risk of this. Due to the development of secondary sexual characteristics following adolescence, teens feel a great push to explore and experiment with their bodies. Early maturing girls are likely to start dating and a combination of the overwhelming urge to explore and peer pressure leads many into sex.
Teens often equate intimacy with sex. Rather than exploring a deep emotional attachment first, teens tend to assume that if they engage in the physical act, the emotional attachment will follow
Most sexually active adolescents are not fully informed about contraception, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. As a result, many fall victims of unwanted pregnancies as well as STD’s. This we must note has destroyed so many young promising teens even from very good homes.
Because adolescence is a transitional stage in life, pregnancy can add significant emotional stress. Pregnant adolescents and their partners tend to drop out of school or job training, thus worsening their economic status, lowering their self-esteem, and straining personal relationships. Some of them never get to fulfill their childhood dreams in life.
Pregnant adolescents, particularly the very young and those who are not receiving prenatal care, are more likely than women in their 20s to have medical problems such as anemia and toxemia. Infants of young mothers (especially mothers younger than 15 years) are more likely to be born prematurely and to have a low birth weight. Also there is the problem of Vesico vaginal fistula (VVF).
Most times, pregnant teens attempt abortion, but this does not remove the psychological problems of an unwanted pregnancy—either for the adolescent girl or her partner. Really, it leads to more psychological and medical problems and the church has very strong words against abortion.
Parents may have different reactions when their daughter says she is pregnant or their son says his girlfriend is pregnant. Emotions may range from apathy to disappointment and anger. It is important for parents to express their support and willingness to help the adolescent sort through his or her choices. Parents and adolescents need to communicate openly about sex, contraception, abortion, adoption, and parenthood which are all tough options for the adolescent to struggle with alone.
DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Substance use among adolescents occurs on a spectrum; from experimentation to dependence. Experimentation with alcohol and drugs during adolescence is common. Unfortunately, teenagers often don’t see the link between their actions today and the consequences tomorrow. They also have a tendency to feel indestructible and immune to the problems that others experience.
Alcohol is the biggest culprit in this regard. Teens have access to it at parties, can obtain it from older friends who are of legal age to buy it, or may simply raid their parents’ liquor cabinets. Moreover, unlike drug use, the moderate use of alcohol is considered perfectly acceptable in most adult social circles. Teens see their parents enjoying a cocktail after work or having a glass of wine at dinner. Drinking comes to represent a very sophisticated and adult thing to do, after all, mum and Dad do it…why shouldn’t I?
Using alcohol and tobacco at a young age has negative health effects. While some teens will experiment and stop, or continue to use occasionally, without significant problems. Others will develop a dependency, moving on to more dangerous drugs and causing significant harm to themselves and possibly others.
Teenagers at risk for developing serious alcohol and drug problems include those: with a family history of substance abuse , those who are depressed , those who have low self-esteem, and who feel like they don’t fit in or are out of the mainstream.
The majority of adults who smoke cigarettes begin smoking during adolescence. If an adolescent reaches the age of 18 to 19 years without becoming a smoker, it is highly unlikely that he will become a smoker as an adult. An estimated 20 million adults in the
Teenagers abuse a variety of drugs, both legal and illegal. Legally available drugs include alcohol, prescribed medications, inhalants (fumes from glues, aerosols, and solvents) and over-the-counter cough, cold, sleep, and diet medications. The most commonly used illegal drugs are marijuana (pot), stimulants (cocaine, crack, and speed), opiates, heroin, and designer drugs (Ecstasy).
Drug use is associated with a variety of negative consequences, including increased risk of serious drug use later in life, school failure, and poor judgment which may put teens at risk for accidents, violence, unplanned and unsafe sex, crime and suicide.
Parents can prevent their children from using drugs by talking to them about drugs, open communication, role modeling, responsible behavior, and recognizing if problems are developing.
STRESS AND DEPRESSION
Stress and depression are serious problems for many teenagers. A 1986 study in High Schools in Minnesota, in the US showed that although 61 percent of the students are not depressed and seem to handle their problems in constructive ways, 39 percent suffer from mild to severe depression. These young people often rely on passive or negative behaviors in their attempts to deal with problems. (Garfinkel, et al., 1986).
Stress is characterized by feelings of tension, frustration, worry, sadness and withdrawal that commonly last from a few hours to a few days. Depression is both more severe and longer lasting. Depression is characterized by more extreme feelings of hopelessness, sadness, isolation, worry, withdrawal and worthlessness that last for two weeks or more.
Young people become stressed for many reasons. The most common of these are: Break up with boy/girl friend, Increased arguments with parents ,Trouble with brother or sister ,Increased arguments between parents , Change in parents’ financial status ,Serious illness or injury of family member , and Trouble with classmates. In addition, Children from single parents or broken homes are subjected to a near harrowing experience which brings about Stress and Depression. A classical example of what life could be for a teen from a broken home is shown in my novel Whispering Aloud published by Spectrum books
These stress inducing events are centered in the two most important domains of a teenager’s life: home and school. They relate to issues of conflict and loss. Loss can reflect the real or perceived loss of something concrete such as a friend or money, and it can mean the loss of such intrinsic things as self-worth, respect, friendship or love.
In my book Whispering Aloud, a novella, Lilian, the main character, a child from a broken home, experienced the stress of being incomplete since she grew to know only her Mother, the stress of being lonely as she had no sibling to play and share experiences with while growing up as well as the depressive feeling of being kept in the dark about her father as her mother would not even mention it. Fate however led her to eventually discovering the existence of, and meeting with her own twin sister Vivian in what can best be described as an entrapping story.
Young people respond to stress and depression by exhibiting much more anger and ventilation; being passive and aggressive. They yell, fight and complain just about every thing. Drinking, smoking and crying more often- especially the girls- are other popular signs. They are also less inclined to do things with their family or to go along with parents’ rules and requests.
Ultimately, most young people will develop and assume the responsibility for their own protection and peace of mind. But during the years of learning and practice, parents, teachers and helping adults need to be aware of the signs and patterns that signal danger. Awareness of adolescent stress and depression opens the door for adults to begin constructive interventions and stimulate emotional development.
BULLYING
This is a huge problem that exists among adolescents though it is ofteeglected in this part of the world. Bullying is the act of intentionally causing harm to others, through verbal harassment, physical assault, or other more subtle methods of coercion such as manipulation.
Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as peer abuse.
In colloquial speech, bullying often describes a form of harassment perpetrated by an abuser who possesses more physical and/or social power and dominance than the victim. The harassment can be verbal, physical and/or emotional.
Every day thousands of teens wake up afraid to go to school. Bullying is a problem that affects millions of students of all races and classes. Bullying has everyone worried, not just the kids on its receiving end. Yet because parents, teachers, and other adults don’t always see it, they may not understand how extreme bullying can get.
Studies show that people who are abused by their peers are at risk for mental health problems, such as low self-esteem, stress, depression, or anxiety. They may also think about suicide more.
Bullies are at risk for problems, too. Bullying is violence, and it often leads to more violent behavior as the bully grows up. It’s estimated that 1 out of 4 elementary-school bullies will have a criminal record by the time they are 30. Some teen bullies end up being rejected by their peers and lose friendships as they grow older. Bullies may also fail in school and not have the career or relationship success that other people enjoy. Some bullies actually have personality disorders that don’t allow them to understand normal social emotions like guilt, empathy, compassion, or remorse. Such teens need help from a mental health professional like a psychiatrist or psychologist.
SCHOOL PROBLEMS
The School constitutes a large part of an adolescent’s existence. Difficulties in almost any area of life often manifest as school problems.
School problems during the adolescent years may be the result of rebellion and a need for independence. Less commonly, they may be caused by mental health disorders, such as anxiety or depression. Substance use, abuse, and family conflict also are common contributors to school problems. Sometimes, inappropriate academic placement—particularly in adolescents with a learning disability or mild mental retardation that was not recognized early in life—causes school problems.
Particular school problems include fear of going to school, truancy, dropping out, and academic underachievement. Problems that developed earlier in childhood, such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disorders, may continue to cause school problems for adolescents.
Between 1% and 5% of adolescents develop fear of going to school. This fear may be generalized or related to a particular person (a teacher or another student) or event at school (such as physical education class or bullying). The adolescent may develop physical symptoms, such as abdominal pain, or may simply refuse to go to school. School personnel and family members should identify the reason, if any, for the fear and encourage the adolescent to attend school.
Adolescents experience many more problems which I have not discussed here due to time constraints. However, it is important we highlight two major factors that are central to the orchestration or otherwise of these problems of adolescence. These two factors are: Peer pressure and the Media.
Peer-Pressure is a term describing the pressure exerted by a peer group in encouraging a person to change their attitude, behavior and/or morals, to conform to, for example, the group’s actions, fashion sense, taste in music and television, or outlook on life. Peer pressure can also cause people to do things they wouldn’t normally do, e.g. take drugs, smoke etc.
As you grow older, you’ll be faced with some challenging decisions. Some don’t have a clear right or wrong answer – like should you play soccer or become a muscian? Other decisions involve serious moral questions, like whether to cut class, try cigarettes, or lie to your parents.
Peers influence your life, even if you don’t realize it, just by spending time with you. You learn from them, and they learn from you. It’s only humaature to listen to and learn from other people in your age group. While peers can be of positive influence in many ways, they could also be very negative and in fact are responsible for a great deal of the problems teens experience.
Some kids give in to peer pressure because they want to be liked, to fit in, or because they worry that other kids may make fun of them if they don’t go along with the group. Others may go along because they are curious to try something new that others are doing. The idea that “everyone’s doing it” may influence some kids to leave their better judgment, or their common sense, behind.
The second issue is the Media. Some years ago, all I could watch was the black and white ‘wooden’ television in my Dads sitting room which showed only NTA from 4.00pm to 12 mid night. Today however, we caow watch whatever we want to, from whatever part of the world and at whatever time of the day. The local television, cable television, the satellite, the internet, the 3G technology in handsets, Video, CD and DVD players, name it, are all now at our very disposal and with the press of a button, we are availed of all sorts of motion pictures on our screens providing high level entertainment and relaxation.
Beyond the entertainment and the feeling of being up to date which these sophisticated gadgets give us; they are also a potent means for self destruction. Unfortunately, there is ofteo restriction to the content of what is on our screens. While they are all often pooled together under the umbrella of “Entertainment”, it is common knowledge that the content often varies ranging from the very critical and educative to the obscene and downright immoral. (See an article by me “What are Your Children Watching” at my blog site www.nzesylva.wordpress.com ).
Adolescents have a delicate innocence that can be easily influenced, traumatized and subsequently destroyed by what they watch on the screen. Once they have imbibed something negative, it becomes almost impossible to change them and they don’t just imbibe, they often also go ahead to ‘innocently’ practicalise, destroying their lives and those of their friends in the process.
Most parents are often too busy or rather feign to be busy to monitor and show some extra interest in what their children are watching. Such parents must note that they would have failed in their parental duties if that child (or children) of theirs ends up a junky, a prostitute or a sexual pervert because of what they freely let them watch. The implication of having a media induced, morally deranged generation can best be imagined.
Having dwelt so much on the problems, every one would expect to hear me give the solutions. If you’ve listened attentively, you would have noticed that have consciously put in some points on how parents can handle the discussed problems. I am not a parent yet, so I in a way consider my self not too fit to advice them. However, it suffices to say that in dealing with adolescents as a parent, one has to be more patient and understanding, Strict but not firm, persuasive but not authoritarian and best of all very prayerful.
On the part of the teens, I wish to state that there is simply no excuse for letting the physical and psycho-social changes of adolescence overwhelm you so much as making you begin to take part in antisocial behaviours. As a Catholic teen, you have a responsibility to your self, your parents as well as the Church to live lives worthy of emulation by your peers.
Adolescence or no adolescence, the bible is quite clear on our conduct as individuals. For example, It says “Honour your father and your mother”. Honouring your parents does not include quarreling with them and being disobedient. Ephesians 6:1 is even more explicit on our duty to our parents, “Children, it is your Christian duty to obey your parents, for this is the right thing to do”. Our Lord Jesus Christ who was also an adolescent at a time gives us a good example of how to be a good adolescent. Despite being God, Jesus was very obedient Luke’s Gospel 2:51-52.
The bible also says “Thou shall not commit adultery”. 1st Thessalonians 4:7 says “God did not call us to live in immorality, but in holiness”. Titus 2:11-14 admonishes us to do away with all ungodly living and worldly passions. Participation in sex before marriage is not just a sin but could ruin your life. Same goes to using drugs and alcohol.
Psalm 119:9 summarizes the need for adolescents to remain very close to the word of Gods in these words “How can young people keep their lives pure? By obeying your commands” and the only way we can know of these commands is by being close to God, attending Masses and Catechism classes, participating in the Sacraments, reading the Bible and obeying our parents and teachers.
Problems of Adolescence
Most problems of adolescence are due to failure in understanding the anatomical, morphological and psychological changes expected during adolescence. Psychologically, adolescence is such a vulnerable stage that boys / girls of this age are easily carried away by perceptions generated by
Misleading and misguiding parents, teachers, friends, brother/sisters.
Ignorance of elders.
Half – informed or ill – informed friends, brothers, sisters.
Wrongful messages depicted through TV serials, advertisements, films
Publications carrying partially or fully false information.
Such perceptions can be anything in the range of studies, sex, society, married life, career, religion, politics, or any relevant subject.
Every adolescent boy or girl is prone to such exposures – which ultimately are retained as perceptions in their minds to form their behavioural patterns.
The problems of adolescence are classified as
morphological / developmental
psychological
social
educational
Some problems are absolutely unimportant and trivial. They could be easily ignored. But even such problems cause great concern to adolescent people.
Morphological / Developmental Problems
over growth of hair or undergrowth of hair
over weight and underweight
skin colour problems
Facial deformities, pimples, etc.
Limb deformities
Abnormal growth of genitals and breasts.
Psychological Problems
Ignorance about many basic facts leads to psychological problems like
Misconceptions about sexual feelings, sex related issues.
Misconceptions about child birth, reproduction.
Misconceptions about coitus, menstrual cycles.
Fear about sex and sexual issues.
Guilt feeling about sex related issues.
Inferiority / Superiority complex about skin colour, beauty, mental ability and IQ.
Inexplicable perceptions about dress and fashion codes.
Wrong and unrealistic ideologies about friendship and courtship.
Perceptional or communicational or preconceived complications about their teachers and parents.
Attraction towards opposite sex.
Unrealistic and illogical curiosity about sex and sex related issues.
Exceptional vulnerability to suicide psychology.
Social
Anticipated unemployment and insecurity due to unemployment.
Unwarranted and inexplicable hatredness towards brother / sisters, friends.
Intense closeness with brothers / sisters, friends.
Unpredictable and volatile relationships with friends.
Unrealistic social perceptions about violence, love, sex as influenced by media.
Unusually vulnerable and volatile relations with relatives.
Fear / imagination about married life, life partners.
Educational
Tensions of attending the classes, examinations and tests.
Low IQ feeling.
Fear about failure in examination.
Fear about low score.
Fear and concern about a future career.
Misconceptions about teachers.
Due to many problems faced during adolescence, the boys and girls of the age between 8 – 16 form a separate category by themselves. Their problems are specific to themselves. Most of the problems faced by them are perceptional. By timely and effective guidance – many of their problems could be solved. Some of them may need medical / psychiatric attention. In
Despite all efforts being made by parents, teachers, large number of adolescents face one or many problems. When the problem is aggravated, the parents may take them to doctors. But most of them face minor problems – modifying their behavioural patterns, personality as a whole. The implications of problems in adolescence can be moral or social.
Social Implications
Future citizen may have a high IQ due to positive thinking and reorientation of their mental resources towards positive personality development.
A section of future population may turn into disgruntled, impatient group of people due to grooming of misconceptions about society, love, law, relations, etc.
Due to wrong educational policies and ever growing unemployment problems – a section of population may turn hostile against the whole society, which breeds and deepens the antisocial activities and perverted thinking.
Many of the wrong perception about sex related problems may lead them to unwanted motherhood, anxiety or illegal termination of pregnancy.
Some problems during adolescence are decisive in building the personalities (positive and negative) – who may or may not utilize the opportunities open to them during their later life.
When teachers, parents, brothers /sisters or any close person has positive dominant personality to effectively guide the adolescent at right time – they turn out to be very useful section of future population.
Imaginary fear, imaginary anxieties and unrealistic expectations as well as host of strong misconceptions may ultimately end up with personalities of negative / perverted thoughts.
In extreme disillusions, tension, wrongful personality and maladjustments – a section of population may have to be psychiatric patients. Psychosis of mild nature may remain untreated and unnoticed. Such people will not do anything useful to the society or their families.
Adolescent being influenced by mass media like electronic media, print media or computer culture – may be guided or misguided by such exposure. When misguided – they are likely to develop negative perception about many social values.
The social implications of adolescent problems are dependent upon social structure. In a country like
ADOLESCENCE PSYCHOLOGY
The adolescent period is from the age of thirteen to nineteen and is named as teenage period. Maximum physical development of the internal and external organism of the body is attained. Major physiological changes meant for teenage period are fast and completed at the end of this period.
The adolescence is nervous and unsteady in sudden and major physical changes. We can see an appreciable intelligence, thinking power, logical reasoning and understanding the environment. The adolescent is rich in memory, perceiving things, concept formation, association, generalization, imagination and decision making. Questioning on most of the things is prevalent but becomes satisfied in approval and recognition of his views. It is a period of joy and happiness and does not want to miss what he aspires. Sometimes he is in moods and bursts in tears instantly. Emotional development is at peak. Thus, there is no emotional stability in general.
Socially, the group feeling is at its maximum and wants to shine in the group. There is a natural ability to understand the feelings of others. There is the eagerness for opposite sex. Ego centered behaviour but with some adjustable nature in character can be seen. The adolescent follows the social norms and practices. There is a moral fear for God and heaven.
5 Problems of adolescents:
i) Emotional tension:
Emotional development is at maximum and unstable. Self respect and personal pride make the individual emotionally bad. He expects the things to be done as he aspires.
ii) Personal appearance:
This is a significant problem. The adolescent is much worried about the appearance with modern and latest life style at any cost.
iii) Emancipation:
It is the ambition for freedom from parental sovereign. The individual hates control of the parents. He seeks identity to himself.
iv) Economic independence:
This is another problem of economic independence. Money from parents for personal expense is a major problem.
v) Social adjustment:
One has to face a lot of adjustment problems. The most difficult problem is related to social adjustment outside the family and to peer group.
It is another point of noteworthy that adolescents are seen to be reluctant to have with them any rule of study habits. It would be wise that the readers are well aware of the Rules of study habits and another one is Problem of problem solving which play a main role in adolescent stage of human life.
Adults commonly tell young people that the teenage years are the “best years of your life.” The rosy remembrance highlights happy groups of high school students energetically involved at a dance or sporting event, and a bright-eyed couple holding hands or sipping sodas at a local restaurant. This is only part of the picture. Life for many young people is a painful tug of war filled with mixed messages and conflicting demands from parents, teachers, coaches, employers, friends and oneself. Growing up—negotiating a path between independence and reliance on others—is a tough business. It creates stress, and it can create serious depression for young people ill-equipped to cope, communicate and solve problems.
A study and a survey conducted recently in
Adults need to be familiar with the family, biological and personality factors that predispose a young person to depression. They can learn to recognize the kinds of psychological, behavioral and social events that most often signal trouble. Awareness of the way these risk factors “pile up” helps any adult living and working with adolescents to be sensitive when stress and depression are imminent.
Stress and Depression Are Real
Stress and depression are serious problems for many teenagers, as the 1986 study of
Stress is characterized by feelings of tension, frustration, worry, sadness and withdrawal that commonly last from a few hours to a few days. Depression is both more severe and longer lasting. Depression is characterized by more extreme feelings of hopelessness, sadness, isolation, worry, withdrawal and worthlessness that last for two weeks or more. The finding that 9 percent of high school students are severely depressed is important since depression is the most important risk factor for suicide. The Minnesota Study found that 88 percent of the youth who reported making suicide attempts were depressed. Approximately 6 percent of the students reported suicide attempts in the previous six months.
Common Causes and Responses to Stress
Young people become stressed for many reasons. The
Break up with boy/girl friend
Increased arguments with parents
Trouble with brother or sister
Increased arguments between parents
Change in parents’ financial status
Serious illness or injury of family member
Trouble with classmates
Trouble with parents
These events are centered in the two most important domains of a teenager’s life: home and school. They relate to issues of conflict and loss. Loss can reflect the real or perceived loss of something concrete such as a friend or money, and it can mean the loss of such intrinsic things as self-worth, respect, friendship or love.
In a more informal survey of 60 young people (Walker, 1985), the primary sources of tension and trouble for teens and their friends were: relationships with friends and family; the pressure of expectations from self and others; pressure at school from teachers, coaches, grades and homework; financial pressures; and tragedy in the lives of family and friends (described as death, divorce, cancer).
Most teenagers respond to stressful events in their lives by doing something relaxing, trying positive and self-reliant problem-solving, or seeking friendship and support from others. Common examples include listening to music, trying to make their own decisions, daydreaming, trying to figure out solutions, keeping up friendships, watching television and being close to people they care about. These behaviors are appropriate for adolescents who are trying to become independent, take responsibility for themselves, and draw on friends and family for support.
Troubled Youth Respond Differently
The majority of young people face the stress of negative life events, find internal or external resources to cope. and move on. But for others, the events pile up and the stressors are too great. In the
The actions in response to stress were also different for those who reported serious depression or a suicide attempt. Young people who are depressed are at much greater risk of attempting suicide than non-depressed youth—although not all youth who attempt suicide are depressed. These young people report exhibiting much more anger and ventilation; avoidance and passivity; and aggressive, antisocial behavior. They describe yelling. fighting and complaining; drinking, smoking and using doctor-prescribed drugs more frequently; and sleeping, riding around in cars and crying more often. They are less inclined to do things with their family or to go along with parents’ rules and requests.
A Closer Look At High Risk Youth
It is important not to overreact to isolated incidents. Young people will have problems and will learn, at their own rate, to struggle and deal with them. But it is critical for parents and helping adults to be aware of the factors that put a youth at particular risk, especially when stressful events begin to accumulate for these vulnerable individuals. A good starting point for identifying and intervening with highly troubled and depressed young people is the careful study of suicidal adolescents.
Family history and biology can create a predisposition for dealing poorly with stress. These factors make a person susceptible to depression and self-destructive behavior.
History of depression and/or suicide in the family
Alcoholism or drug use in the family
Sexual or physical abuse patterns in the family
Chronic illness in oneself or family
Family or individual history of psychiatric disorders such as eating disorders, schizophrenia, manic-depressive disorder, conduct disorders, delinquency
Death or serious loss in the family
Learning disabilities or mental/physical disabilities
Absent or divorced parents; inadequate bonding in adoptive families
Family conflict; poor parent/child relationships
Personality traits, especially when they change dramatically, can signal serious trouble. These traits include:
Impulsive behaviors, obsessions and unreal fears
Aggressive and antisocial behavior
Withdrawal and isolation; detachment
Poor social skills resulting in feelings of humiliation, poor self-worth, blame and feeling ugly
Over-achieving and extreme pressure to perform
Problems with sleeping and/or eating
Psychological and social events contribute to the accumulation of problems and stressors.
Loss experience such as a death or suicide of a friend or family member; broken romance, loss of a close friendship or a family move
Unmet personal or parental expectation such as failure to achieve a goal, poor grades, social rejection
Unresolved conflict with family members, peers, teachers, coaches that results in anger, frustration, rejection
Humiliating experience resulting in loss of self-esteem or rejection
Unexpected events such as pregnancy or financial problems
Predispositions, stressors and behaviors weave together to form a composite picture of a youth at high risk for depression and self-destructive behavior. Symptoms such as personal drug and alcohol use, running away from home, prolonged sadness and crying, unusual impulsivity or recklessness or dramatic changes in personal habits are intertwined with the family and personal history, the individual personality and the emotional/social events taking place in a person’s life.
It is not always easy for one person to see the “whole picture.” That’s why it is essential that people who have “hunches” that something is wrong take the lead to gather perspectives from other friends, family members and professionals who know the young person. It is all too often true that the survivors of an adolescent suicide only “put the pieces together” after the fact, when they sit together and try to figure out what happened. How fortunate a troubled young person is to have a caring adult take the initiative to look more closely before something serious happens!
The
Supporting Distressed Young People (FS-02786), by Ron Pitzer
Helping Friends in Trouble (FS-02787), by Joyce Walker
Several common themes run through these two. First, young people must learn and practice coping skills to get them through an immediate conflict or problem. Coping strategies must emphasize self-responsibility to find positive, non-destructive ways to find relief. Second, communication skills are important. This involves being able to talk and selecting a good listener. It is important to express feelings, vent emotions, and talk about the problems and issues. Peers are good sympathizers, but it often takes an adult perspective to begin to plan how to make changes for the better. Third, young people need help to learn problem-solving skills. Sorting out the issues, setting goals and making plans to move forward are skills that can be taught and practiced.
Ultimately, most young people will develop and assume the responsibility for their own protection and peace of mind. But during the years of learning and practice, parents, teachers and helping adults need to be aware of the signs and patterns that signal danger. Awareness of adolescent stress and depression opens the door for adults to begin constructive interventions and stimulate emotional development.
Adolescence, these years from puberty to adulthood, may be roughly divided into three stages: early adolescence, generally ages eleven to fourteen; middle adolescence, ages fifteen to seventeen; and late adolescence, ages eighteen to twenty-one. In addition to physiological growth, seven key intellectual, psychological and social developmental tasks are squeezed into these years. The fundamental purpose of these tasks is to form one’s own identity and to prepare for adulthood.
Physical Development
Puberty is defined as the biological changes of adolescence. By mid-adolescence, if not sooner, most youngsters’ physiological growth is complete; they are at or close to their adult height and weight, and are now physically capable of having babies.
Intellectual Development
Most boys and girls enter adolescence still perceiving the world around them in concrete terms: Things are either right or wrong, awesome or awful. They rarely set their sights beyond the present, which explains younger teens’ inability to consider the long-term consequences of their actions.
By late adolescence, many youngsters have come to appreciate subtleties of situations and ideas, and to project into the future. Their capacity to solve complex problems and to sense what others are thinking has sharpened considerably. But because they are still relatively inexperienced in life, even older teens apply these newfound skills erratically and therefore may act without thinking.
Emotional Development
If teenagers can be said to have a reason for being (besides sleeping in on weekends and cleaning out the refrigerator), it would have to be asserting their independence. This demands that they distance themselves from Mom and Dad. The march toward autonomy can take myriad forms: less overt affection, more time spent with friends, contentious behavior, pushing the limits—the list goes on and on. Yet adolescents frequently feel conflicted about leaving the safety and security of home. They may yo-yo back and forth between craving your attention, only to spin away again.
Social Development
Until now, a child’s life has revolved mainly around the family. Adolescence has the effect of a stone dropped in water, as her social circle ripples outward to include friendships with members of the same sex, the opposite sex, different social and ethnic groups, and other adults, like a favorite teacher or coach. Eventually teenagers develop the capacity for falling in love and forming romantic relationships.
Not all teenagers enter and exit adolescence at the same age or display these same behaviors. What’s more, throughout much of adolescence, a youngster can be farther along in some areas of development than in others. For example, a fifteen-year-old girl may physically resemble a young adult but she may still act very much like a child since it isn’t until late adolescence that intellectual, emotional and social development begin to catch up with physical development.
Is it any wonder that teenagers sometimes feel confused and conflicted, especially given the limbo that society imposes on them for six to ten years, or longer? Prior to World War II, only about one in four youngsters finished high school. It was commonplace for young people still in their teens to be working full-time and married with children. Today close to three in four youngsters receive high-school diplomas, with two in five graduates going on to college. “As more and more teens have extended their education,” says Dr. Joseph Rauh, a specialist in adolescent medicine since the 1950s, “the age range of adolescence has been stretched into the twenties.”
Reflect back on your own teenage years, and perhaps you’ll recall the frustration of longing to strike out on your own—but still being financially dependent on Mom and Dad. Or striving to be your own person—yet at the same time wanting desperately to fit in among your peers.
Adolescence can be a confusing time for parents, too. For one thing, they must contend with their children’s often paradoxical behavior. How is it that the same son given to arias about saving the rain forest has to be nagged repeatedly to sort the recycling? Or that in the course of an hour your daughter can accuse you of treating her “like a baby,” then act wounded that you would expect her to clear the table after dinner?
But beyond learning to anticipate the shifting currents of adolescent emotion, mothers and fathers may be struggling with some conflicting emotions of their own. The pride you feel as you watch your youngster become independent can be countered by a sense of displacement. As much as you may accept intellectually that withdrawing from one’s parents is an integral part of growing up, it hurts when the child who used to beg to join you on errands now rarely consents to being seen in public with you, and then only if the destination is a minimum of one area code away.
It’s comforting to know that feeling a sense of loss is a normal response—one that is probably shared by half the moms and dads standing next to you at soccer practice. For pediatricians, offering guidance and advice to parents makes up a considerable and rewarding part of each day.
Adolescent development
A critical transition
WHO identifies adolescence as the period in human growth and development that occurs after childhood and before adulthood, from ages 10 to19. It represents one of the critical transitions in the life span and is characterized by a tremendous pace in growth and change that is second only to that of infancy. Biological processes drive many aspects of this growth and development, with the onset of puberty marking the passage from childhood to adolescence. The biological determinants of adolescence are fairly universal; however, the duration and defining characteristics of this period may vary across time, cultures, and socioeconomic situations. This period has seen many changes over the past century namely the earlier onset of puberty, later age of marriage, urbanization, global communication, and changing sexual attitudes and behaviors.
Key developmental experiences
The process of adolescence is a period of preparation for adulthood during which time several key developmental experiences occur. Besides physical and sexual maturation, these experiences include movement toward social and economic independence, and development of identity, the acquisition of skills needed to carry out adult relationships and roles, and the capacity for abstract reasoning. While adolescence is a time of tremendous growth and potential, it is also a time of considerable risk during which social contexts exert powerful influences.
Pressures to engage in high risk behaviour
Many adolescents face pressures to use alcohol, cigarettes, or other drugs and to initiate sexual relationships at earlier ages, putting themselves at high risk for intentional and unintentional injuries, unintended pregnancies, and infection from sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Many also experience a wide range of adjustment and mental health problems. Behavior patterns that are established during this process, such as drug use or nonuse and sexual risk taking or protection, can have long-lasting positive and negative effects on future health and well-being. As a result, during this process, adults have unique opportunities to influence young people.
Adolescents are different both from young children and from adults. Specifically, adolescents are not fully capable of understanding complex concepts, or the relationship between behavior and consequences, or the degree of control they have or can have over health decision making including that related to sexual behaviour. This inability may make them particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation and high-risk behaviours. Laws, customs, and practices may also affect adolescents differently than adults. For example, laws and policies often restrict access by adolescents to reproductive health information and services, especially when they are unmarried. In addition, even when services do exist, provider attitudes about adolescents having sex often pose a significant barrier to use of those services.
Family and community are key supports
Adolescents depend on their families, their, communities, schools, health services and their workplaces to learn a wide range of important skills that can help them to cope with the pressures they face and make the transition from childhood to adulthood successfully. Parents, members of the community, service providers, and social institutions have the responsibility to both promote adolescent development and adjustment and to intervene effectively when problems arise.
v Youth.
Essentially, “young people” fall into the period of life from the beginning of puberty to the attainment of adulthood. This period is usually concomitant with problems as they “struggle” to fit themselves into society. The word “problem” doesn’t necessarily imply that youth is assumed to be a period in which storm and stress predominate; it can be a period marked by good health and high achievement. Nevertheless difficult decisions and adjustments face young people in today’s society. In this article, therefore I would attempt to identify some of the fundamental problems faced by young people today and possible solutions to these problems.
Perhaps the most fundamental problem faced by young people today is unemployment. Because of the universal downturn in the economy coupled with technology whereby particular jobs and skills are made obsolete, many youth today are experiencing problems in obtaining jobs. Young people today have certaieeds and aspirations. Consequently, the treat of unemployment means financial worries, frustration and discouragement. How do the youth today respond to this?
Given that many youths may not be sufficiently mature to cope with such problems, they go in the undesirable direction of delinquency, drugs, vandalism, stealing, etc. Moreover, they compensate for their feelings by striking out against society, revolting against adult authority. These problems are invariably compounded by peer pressure whereby young people are forced either consciously or unconsciously to become involved in those antisocial activities by people of their own age group. What can be done to solve the problem of unemployment and its ills?
One method which can be adopted to curb the problems which arise out of unemployment among youths, involves the providing of relief or protection from the financial hardships of unemployment. For instance, a compulsory unemployment insurance system could be adopted in which workers and their employers contribute to a fund out of which payments are made to those young people who are eligible for work, but cannot find work. Incidently this method is currently being used in the
Other methods which can be adopted include measures aimed at creating conditions that reduces the level of unemployment. These would include: (a) programmes for retraining, in order to give would be employed young people new skills that are in demand; (b) subsidies and other incentives to encourage workers to move out of areas of labour surplus into areas in which labour is in short supply.
Also, young people should strive for high education in order that they would be qualified for the very skilled labour force required by industrialized and “semi-industrialized” countries.
Another problem facing young people today is the tension which exist between parents and children. It is usually common for strained relationships to develop between parents and young people. In their eagerness to achieve adult status, young people may or rather usually resent any restrictions placed upon them. Often times young people may not be willing to admit that they have doubts and fears about taking on adult responsibilities and freedom. They invariably believe that their parents are overanxious and overprotective. This usually creates tension between parents and young people. To correct this problem, psychologist emphasize the significance of psychological weaning. This is the process of outgrowing family domination and working towards the time when the young person establishes his or her own home. Similarly, parents should exercise control over young people, but with sympathy and understanding.
An area of immense concern, and which poses a problem for young people and their parents is sex and dating. Some parents today are prepared to give their children some latitude as far as dating and sex are concerned. In contrast, some parents are very overprotective, restricting their children from going out with the opposite sex, thus, many young people today are debarred from learning the valuable experience of adjusting to other persons. They also show deficiency in the development of social poise, which might not be available otherwise and this deprives them of their privilege. Therefore, parents, school, and the church can and should do more to promote wholesome relationships.
Teenage pregnancies and venereal disease are also common problems facing the young person or teenager. This can severely disrupt her education. Moreover, being pregnant at such an early age can also have deleterious effects on one’s health. Perhaps what is most important is the risk of “catching” the deadly disease AIDS. Many young person’s today have contacted AIDS and are suffering the consequences, being terminally ill.
What can be done to address these problems? First, many of the sexually related problems of young people can be lessened if young people were given sufficient and suitable instruction well in advance of the time when sex is an immediate concern for them. Some surveys have shown that the primary source of information most children, regarding sex, is their peers, not from their parents. Secondly, the postponement of sex prior to marriage can go a long way to reduce the incidence of AIDS. And thirdly, the church can reinforce the Christian teaching of monogamy.
On the question of Church, it has been found that many of our young people today attend church, while an equal or greater amount do not attend church. There is a tendency for the latter set, to become involved in antisocial activities such as drugs, gambling, stealing and vandalism. For those young people who attend churches, many of them have serious reservations about the church as a whole. Many of them question the significance of the church in view of what is happening in our society today, in terms of drugs, unemployment, frustration, and crime. Maybe the church needs to diversify its programmes in order to effectively accommodate the “Modern youths” and by extension to curb their fears and frustration.
Having looked at most of the fundamental problem areas for young people and solutions to these problems, I would hope that, or rather it is my desire that this article would serve as a vehicle for helping young people today to appreciate and understand some of the problems which confront them and how they can attempt to address them.
Additionally, it is my fervent hope that those in authority would work in conjunction with young people to help them to alleviate the aforementioned problems. We must remember that the young people are the leaders of tomorrow; consequently, it is incumbent on the adults to set the pace (as it were) for an uninterrupted transition.
LIFE OF YOUTH IN
Life of youth in
The Students’ League is aimed at solving various students’ problems, including economic ones. The members of this league organise youth forums, festivals, and group meetings. This
organisation also maintains friendly ties with the universities and colleges of such countries as the
Young Socialists is the organisation of young people who share the views of socialism. They participate in the movement of socialist organisations abroad and support the policy pursued by the Socialist Party of Ukraine.
A lot of young people in
The League of Ukrainian Youth was founded at the end of 1990 by students and teachers who had taken part in protest demonstrations and a hunger strike in Kyiv earlier in the fall. It was organised for the “development of democracy and realisation of human rights in
The league organises conferences and summer camps on such topics as history, politics, philosophy, folklore, etc.
Sokil is Youth Organisation of Union of Ukrainian Officers. It is a labour and professional organisation aimed at Ukrainian youth.
Ukrainian Youth Environmental League was established in 1993. It promotes biodiversity protection and technology for “environmentally clean” products and runs education projects to involve youth in the environmental movement.
Youth Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists YCUN works to facilitate the “consolidation of Ukrainian patriotic youth organizations.” The organisation was formed in June 1998.
Eastern-Ukrainian Union of Youth Organizations SUSMO is a consortium of 26 organisations of various types, including youth and children’s organisations, youth political parties and non-governmental organizations working in the educational, cultural and other fields.
Scouting in
Youth clubs of different interests have come into being these days. They unite music fans, sports fans, theatregoers and others. Besides,
there is the “All-Ukrainian Association of Young Businessmen”, who try to find their own way of raising the country out of the economic crisis.
Youth is the time of life when one is young, but often means the time between childhood and adulthood (maturity).[1][2] Definitions of the specific age range that constitutes youth vary. An individual’s actual maturity may not correspond to their chronological age, as immature individuals can exist at all ages. Youth is also defined as “the appearance, freshness, vigor, spirit, etc., characteristic of one who is young”.[3]
Terminology and definitions
Around the world, the English terms youth, adolescent, teenager, kid, and young person are interchanged, often meaning the same thing, but they are occasionally differentiated. Youth can refer to the entire time of life when one is young, including childhood, but often refers specifically to the time of life that is neither childhood nor adulthood but rather somewhere in between.[4] Youth also identifies a particular mindset of attitude, as in “He is very youthful”. The term also refers to individuals between the ages of 16 and 24.[5]
Although linked to biological processes of development and aging, youth is also defined as a social position that reflects the meanings different cultures and societies give to individuals between childhood and adulthood. Scholars argue that age-based definitions have not been consistent across cultures or times and that thus it is more accurate to focus on social processes in the transition to adult independence for defining youth.[6]
“This world demands the qualities of youth: not a time of life but a state of mind, a temper of the will, a quality of imagination, a predominance of courage over timidity, of the appetite for adventure over the life of ease.” – Robert Kennedy[7]
Youth is an alternative word for the scientifically-oriented adolescent and the common terms teen and teenager. Other common terms for youth are young person and young people.[8]
Youth is the stage of constructing the self-concept. The self-concept of youth is influenced by several variables such as peers, lifestyle, gender, and culture.[9] It is the time of a person’s life in which they make choices which will affect their future.[10]
August 12th was declared International Youth Day by the United Nations.
School
Research shows that poverty and income affect the likelihood for the incompletion of high school. These factors also increase the likelihood for the youth to not go to a college or university.[11]
Mortality
A 2004 study of youth (ages 10-24) mortality worldwide found that 97% of deaths occurred in low to middle-income countries, with the majority in southeast Asia and sub-Saharan
Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)
The leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults are due to certain health-risk behaviors. These behaviors are often established during youth and extend into adulthood. Since the risk behaviors in adulthood and youth are interrelated, problems in adulthood are preventable by influencing youth behavior.
The
· behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence;
· tobacco, alcohol and other drug use;
· sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection;
· unhealthy dietary behaviors;
· physical inactivity—plus overweight.
YRBSS includes a national school-based survey conducted by CDC as well as state and local school-based surveys conducted by education and health agencies.[14]
Obesity in youth
Main article: Childhood obesity
Obesity now affects one in five children in the
Discrimination against overweight children begins early in childhood and becomes progressively institutionalized. Because obese children tend to be taller than their non-overweight peers, they are apt to be viewed as more mature. The inappropriate expectations that result may have an adverse effect on their socialization.
Many of the cardiovascular consequences that characterize adult-onset obesity are preceded by abnormalities that begin in childhood. Hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and abnormal glucose tolerance occur with increased frequency in obese children and adolescents. The relationship of cardiovascular risk factors to visceral fat independent of total body fat remains unclear. Sleep apnea, pseudotumor cerebri, and Blount’s disease represent major sources of morbidity for which rapid and sustained weight reduction is essential. Although several periods of increased risk appear in childhood, it is not clear whether obesity with onset early in childhood carries a greater risk of adult morbidity and mortality.[15]
Bullying
Bullying among school-aged youth is increasingly being recognized as an important problem affecting well-being and social functioning. While a certain amount of conflict and harassment is typical of youth peer relations, bullying presents a potentially more serious threat to healthy youth development. The definition of bullying is widely agreed on in literature on bullying.
Bullying is a specific type of aggression with the following three characters:
1. the behavior is intended to harm or disturb,
2. the behavior occurs repeatedly over time,
3. there is an imbalance of power, with a more powerful person or group attacking a less powerful one. This asymmetry of power may be physical or psychological, and the aggressive behavior may be verbal (e.g., name-calling, threats), physical (e.g., hitting), or psychological (e.g., rumors, shunning/exclusion).
The majority of research on bullying has been conducted in Europe and
Bullying takes many forms, and findings about the types of bullying that occur are fairly similar across countries. A British study involving 23 schools found that direct verbal aggression was the most common form of bullying, occurring with similar frequency in both sexes.[28] Direct physical aggression was more common among boys, while indirect forms were more common among girls. Similarly, in a study of several middle schools in
Research examining characteristics of youth involved in bullying has consistently found that both bullies and those bullied demonstrate poorer psychosocial functioning than their non-involved peers. Youth who bully others tend to demonstrate higher levels of conduct problems and dislike of school, whereas youth who are bullied generally show higher levels of insecurity, anxiety, depression, loneliness, unhappiness, physical and mental symptoms, and low self-esteem. Males who are bullied also tend to be physically weaker than males in general. The few studies that have examined the characteristics of youth who both bully and are bullied found that these individuals exhibit the poorest psychosocial functioning overall
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
A. Principal:
Garfinkel, B. Suicidal Behavior in Children and Adolescents. Manuscript submitted for publication, 1985.
Garfinkel, B., Hoberman, H., Parsons, J., and
Fairfax County Public Schools. The Adolescent Suicide Prevention Program: A Guide for Schools and Communities.
Lewinsohn, P., and Teri, L. The Selection of Depressed and Non-depressed Subjects on the Basis of Self-report Data. Extended version of article in Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1982,50, 590-591.
Teri, L. The Use of the Beck Depression Inventory with Adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 1982,10, 227-284.
Select Committee on Aging, House of Representatives. Suicide and Suicide Prevention (Comm. Pub. No. 98497).
B. Sites:
http://www.21stcenturyschools.com/Bibliography.htm#21stCentury
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy
