Materials to practical classes 12

Families Apiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Caprifoliaceae: description of families, morphological description and determination definition of kinds

The Carrot Family (Apiaceae)

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and southwest Asia known for its licorice-like flavor. Alternative depictions include anís (stressed on the second syllable) and Aniseed. Anise is an herbaceous annual plant growing to 3 ft (1 m) tall. The leaves at the base of the plant are simple, 0.5 in – 2 in (2 – 5 cm) long and shallowly lobed, while leaves higher on the stems are feathery pinnate, divided into numerous leafs. The flowers are white, approximately 3 mm diameter, produced in dense umbels. The fruit is an oblong dry schizocarp, 3 – 5 mm long. It is these seedpods that are referred to as “aniseed”.

Anise is used as food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths), including the lime-speck pug and wormwood pug. Best growth is in light, fertile, well drained soil. Start plants from seeds as soon as the ground warms up in spring. Because plants have a taproot they do not transplant well after established, so start them where they are to grow, or transplant while seedlings are still small.

Culinary. Anise is sweet and very aromatic, distinguished by its liquorice-like flavor. It is used in a wide variety of regional and ethnic confectioneries, including British Aniseed balls, Australian Humbugs, New Zealand Aniseed wheels, Italian pizzelle, German pfeffernusse and springerle, Netherland Muisjes, Norwegian knotts, and Peruvian Picarones. It is a key ingredient in Mexican “atole de anís” or champurrado, which is similar to hot chocolate, and taken as a digestive after meals in India.

Medicinal- Anise, like fennel, contains anethole, and is known to be a phytoestrogen.^[4] Anise is a mild antiparasitic and its leaves can be used to treat digestive problems, relieve toothache, and its essential oil to treat lice and scabies. Anise can be used to relieve menstrual cramps

Ammi majus distributed in Southern Europe, Turkey and North Africa.

Geographic OriginPlant Group: Annual.

Mature size: Height: 12-36 inches (30-90 cm). Width: 12 inches (30 cm)

Flowering period: Summer.

Flowering attributes: Compound umbels bearing about 10 small white flowers per umbel, resembling lace work.

Leaf attributes: Two to three pinnate, light green, lance-shaped leaves

Light: Full sun to partial shade.

Soil: Moist, well-drained, fertile soil is best, but will grow on a variety of soils.
Feeding: Add a complete organic fertilizer when planting.

Propagation Methods: Sow seed in situ in spring. To get an early start, sow seed indoors in April. Cover seed lightly. Germinate at temperatures of 68-72° F (20-22° C). Germination will normally occur within 10-14 days. Harden seedlings off and plant outdoors after last frost.

Pests and Diseases: Susceptible to: Anthriscus, Caraway latent nepovirus, Parsley green mottle potyvirus, Parsnip leaf curl virus. I have not seen this to be a problem in my garden.

Rainy Side Notes

Ammi majus is sometimes confused with roadside Queen Anne’s lace, Daucus carota. D. carota is a common weed in the US, and considered a pest in some areas.  A. majus is used in the florist trade to add a lacy delicate look to bouquets and lasts 3-10 days as a cut flower. Cut flowers in the morning with 80% of flowers opened for best results. For dried flowers, air dry flowers for two to three weeks in a dark, dry place. Darkness is necessary so the white flowers do not turn brown.

This annual is used as a diuretic and has antispasmodic properties. A. majus is commonly used as a cardiac tonic for treatment of angina, palpitations or weakness. It is also used in treatment of wheezing or cough. The ancient Egyptians used it as a treatment for skin diseases. Medical research labs are testing A. majus, as it is showing promise in cancer and AIDS therapy.

Be careful handling any plants in the genus, Ammi, as the sap may bring about a skin rash or irritation that can be very serious and painful. The photoactive compounds from Ammi can cause blistering to normal skin when exposed to the sun. Wash the skin area that is exposed to the sap, using soap and water. If symptoms occur after contact with plant, call your local Poison Control Center.  ishop’s weed is also used as an aromatic spice that has a flavor of thyme. For me, I use this for a lacy flower for bouquets. I love the delicate look it gives to the garden.

Miscellaneous

• In aromatherapy, aniseed essential oil is used to treat colds and flu.

• According to Pliny the Elder, anise was used as a cure for sleeplessness, chewed with alexanders and a little honey in the morning to freshen the breath, and when mixed with wine as a remedy for scorpion stings (N.H. 20.72).

• In Indian cuisine, no distinction is made between anise and fennel. Therefore, the same name (saunf) is usually given to both of them. Some use the term patli (thin) saunf or velayati (foreign) saunf to distinguish anise from fennel.

• In Pakistan boiling water is poured over about a tablespoon of aniseed in a teacup to make a hot tea.

• Builders of steam locomotives in Britain incorporated capsules of aniseed oil into white metal bearings, so that the distinctive smell would give warning in case of overheating.

• Aniseed is the flavour of the sweetened gum Blackjack and Nigeria‘s “Tom Tom” candy.

• Anise can be made into a liquid scent and is used for both hunting and fishing. Anise smells similar to liquorice and is put on fishing lures to attract fish.

• Anethole, the principal component of anise oil, is a precursor that can eventually produce 2,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde which is used in the clandestine synthesis of psychedelic drugs such as 2C-B, 2C-I and DOB

Caraway or Persian cumin (Carum carvi) (Ar. كراويه) is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to Europe and western Asia. The plant is similar in appearance to a carrot plant, with finely divided, feathery leaves with thread-like divisions, growing on 20–30 cm stems. The main flower stem is 40–60 cm tall, with small white or pink flowers in umbels. Caraway fruits (erroneously called seeds) are crescent-shaped achenes, around 2 mm long, with five pale ridges. The plant prefers warm, sunny locations and well-drained soil.

The fruits, usually used whole, have a pungent, anise-like flavor and aroma that comes from essential oils, mostly carvone and limonene. They are used as a spice in breads especially rye bread, which is denser because of the yeast-killing properties of the essential oil, limonene. Caraway is also used in liquors, casseroles, and other foods, especially in Central European and Northern European cuisine, for instance sauerkraut. It is also used to add flavor to cheeses such as havarti. Akvavit and several liqueurs are also made with caraway. A carminative, a tisane made from the seeds is used as a remedy for colic, loss of appetite and digestive disorders and to dispel worms. Caraway seed oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes. The roots may be cooked as a root vegetable like parsnips or carrots. In one of the short stories in Dubliners by James Joyce, a character eats caraway fruits to mask the alcohol on his breath.

Dill (Anethum graveolens) is a short-lived perennial herb. It is the sole species of the genus Anethum, though classified by some botanists in a related genus as Peucedanum graveolens (L.) C.B.Clarke. It grows to 40–60 cm (16–24 in), with slender stems and alternate, finely divided, softly delicate leaves 10–20 cm (3.9–7.9 in) long. The ultimate leaf divisions are 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of fennel, which are threadlike, less than 1 mm (0.039 in) broad, but harder in texture. The flowers are white to yellow, in small umbels 2–9 cm (0.79–3.5 in) diameter. The seeds are 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) long and 1 mm (0.039 in) thick, and straight to slightly curved with a longitudinally ridged surface.

 

    

Its seeds, dill seeds are used as a spice, and its fresh leaves, dill, and its dried leaves, dill weed, are used as herbs. Dill originated in Eastern Europe. Zohary and Hopf remark that “wild and weedy types of dill are widespread in the Mediterranean basin and in West Asia.” Although several twigs of dill were found in the tomb of Amenhotep II, they report that the earliest archeological evidence for its cultivation comes from late Neolithic lake shore settlements in Switzerland.^[1] Traces have been found in Roman ruins in Great Britain. In Semitic languages it is known by the name of Shubit. The Talmud requires that tithes shall be paid on the seeds, leaves, and stem of dill. The Bible states that the Pharisees were in the habit of paying dill as tithe;^[2] Jesus rebuked them for tithing dill but omitting justice, mercy and faithfulness^[3].

Dill Folklore: To the Greeks the presence of dill was an indication of prosperity. In the 8th century, Charlemagne used it at banquets to relieve hiccups and in the Middle Ages it was used as a love potion and to keep witches away

The name dill is thought to have originated from a Norse or Anglo-Saxon word ‘dylle’ meaning to soothe or lull, the plant having the carminative property of relieving gas. In the northeastern U.S. and adjoining parts of Canada, the seed of dill is sometimes known as “meeting-seed”. This expression originates with the Puritans and Quakers, who would give their children dill seeds to chew during long church meetings, due to dill’s mild hunger-suppressant qualities.

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. It is also known as cilantro, particularly in the USA. Coriander is native to southwestern Asia west to north Africa. It is a soft, hairless plant growing to 50 cm [20 in.] tall. The leaves are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant, and slender and feathery higher on the flowering stems. The flowers are borne in small umbels, white or very pale pink, asymmetrical, with the petals pointing away from the centre of the umbel longer (5-6 mm) than those pointing to the middle of the umbel (only 1-3 mm long). The fruit is a globular dry schizocarp 3-5 mm diameter.

The name coriander derives from French coriandre through Latin “coriandrum” in turn from Greek “κορίαννον”.^[1] John Chadwick notes the Mycenaean Greek form of the word, koriadnon “has a pattern curiously similar to the name of Minos‘ daughter Ariadne, and it is plain how this might be corrupted later to koriannon or koriandron.” All parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are the most commonly used in cooking. Coriander is commonly used in Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, Indian, South Asian, Latin American, Chinese, African and Southeast Asian cuisine.

The fresh leaves are an essential ingredient in many South Asian foods (particularly chutneys), in Chinese dishes and in Mexican salsas and guacamole. Chopped coriander leaves are also used as a garnish on cooked dishes such as dal and many curries. As heat diminishes their flavour quickly, coriander leaves are often used raw or added to the dish right before serving. In some Indian and Central Asian recipes, coriander leaves are used in large amounts and cooked until the flavour diminishes) The leaves also spoil quickly when removed from the plant, and lose their aroma when dried or frozen.

Coriander leaves were formerly common in European cuisine but nearly disappeared before the modern period. Today western Europeans usually eat coriander leaves only in dishes that originated in foreign cuisines, except in southern Portugal, where they are still an essential ingredient in many traditional dishes.

Dried coriander fruits

The dry fruits are known as coriander seeds or coriandi seeds. In some regions, the use of the word coriander in food preparation always refers to these seeds (as a spice), rather than to the plant itself. The seeds have a lemony citrus flavour when crushed, due to the presence of the terpenes linalool and pinene. It is also described as warm, nutty, spicy, and orange-flavoured. They are usually dried but can be eaten green. It is commonly found both as whole dried seeds and in ground form. Seeds can be roasted or heated on a dry pan briefly before grinding to enhance and alter the aroma. Like most spices, ground coriander seed loses its flavour quickly in storage and is best when ground as needed. For optimum flavour, whole coriander seed should be stored in a tightly sealed container away from sunlight and heat.

Coriander seeds are also used in brewing certain styles of beer, particularly some Belgian wheat beers. The coriander seeds are typically used in conjunction with orange peel to add a citrus character to these styles of beer.

Coriander roots have a deeper, more intense flavour than the leaves.^[4] They are used in a variety of Asian cuisines. They are commonly used in Thai dishes, including soups and curry pastes.

 History

Coriander grows wild over a wide area of the Near East and southern Europe, which forced Zohary and Hopf to admit that “it is hard to define exactly where this plant is wild and where it only recently established itself.”^[5] Fifteen desiccated mericarps were found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B level of the Nahal Hemel Cave in Israel, which may be the oldest archeological find of coriander. About half a litre of coriander mericarps were recovered from the tomb of Tutankhamun, and because this plant does not grow wild in Egypt, Zohary and Hopf interpret this find as proof that coriander was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians.^[6] The Bible mentions coriander in Exodus 16:31: “And the house of Israel began to call its name Manna: and it was round like coriander seed, and its taste was like that of flat cakes made with honey.” Coriander seems to have been cultivated in Greece since at least the second millennium BC. One of the Linear B tablets recovered from Pylos refers to the species as being cultivated for the manufacture of perfumes, and it appears that it was used in two forms: as a spice for its seeds and as a herb for the flavour of its leaves.^[7] This appears to be confirmed by archaeological evidence from the same period: the large quantities of the species retrieved from an Early Bronze Age layer at Sitagroi in Macedonia could point to cultivation of the species at that time ^[8]. Coriander is thought to have been introduced to Britain by the Romans as a meat preserver.^{[citatioeeded]} Coriander seed and leaf was very widely used in medieval European cuisine, due to its ability to make spoiled meats palatable by “masking” rotten flavours. Even today, coriander seed is an important ingredient in many sausage products. Coriander was brought to the British colonies in North America in 1670 and was one of the first spices cultivated by early settlers.

Potential medical uses

Coriander has been used as a folk medicine for the relief of anxiety and insomnia in Iranian folk medicine. Experiments in mice support its use as an anxiolytic.^[9] Coriander seeds are also used in traditional Indian medicine as a diuretic by boiling equal amounts of coriander seeds and cumin seeds, then cooling and consuming the resulting liquid.^[10] In holistic and some traditional medicine, it is used as a carminative and for general digestive aid.^[11][12]Additionally, coriander juice (mixed with either turmeric powder or mint juice) is used by some as a treatment for acne, applied to the face like toner. Coriander can also produce an allergic reaction in some people.

Lovage (Levisticum officinale) is a plant, the leaves and seeds or fruit of which are used to flavor food, especially in South European cuisine. It is a tall (3 to 9 ft) perennial that vaguely resembles its cousin celery in appearance and in flavor. Lovage also sometimes gets referred to as smallage, but this is more properly used for celery. The fruit of the lovage plant can be used as a spice, but what appears in the trade as lovage seed is usually ajwain, not lovage. On the other hand, what is sold as ‘celery seed’ is often partially or entirely ground lovage seed. The root of lovage, which contains a heavy, volatile oil, is used as a mild aquaretic. Lovage root contains furanocoumarins which can lead to photosensitivity.

Lovage is considered a “magic bullet” companion plant; much as borage helps protect almost all plants from pests, so lovage is thought to improve the health of almost all plants.

Etymology. In Germany and Holland, one of the commoames of Lovage is Maggikraut (German) or Maggiplant (Dutch) because the plant’s taste is reminiscent of Maggi soup seasoning. In Romania the commoame of Lovage is Leuştean. According to Reader’s Digest, “lovage” comes from the Latin word meaning “from liguria” because the herb used to grow heartily in the Liguria region of northwest Italy. The word became “love parsley” English, and mistakenly, due to the name, lovage was often used in over-the-counter love tonics.

Medicinal uses

Lovage tea can be applied to wounds as an antiseptic, or drunk to stimulate digestion. In the UK, Lovage cordial is traditionally mixed with brandy in the ratio of 2:1 as a winter drink. Lovage is second only to capers in its quercetin content [1].

Daucus carota (commoames include wild carrot, (UK) bird’s nest, bishop’s lace, and (US) Queen Anne’s lace) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native to temperate regions of Europe, southwest Asia and northeast North America; domesticated carrots are cultivars of a subspecies, Daucus carota subsp.

sativus.

         Daucus carota is a variable biennial plant, usually growing up to 1 m tall and flowering from June to August. The umbels are claret-coloured or pale pink before they open, then bright white and rounded when in full flower, measuring 3–7 cm wide with a festoon of bracts beneath; finally, as they turn to seed, they contract and become concave like a bird’s nest. The dried umbels detach from the plant, becoming tumbleweeds.^[1]

 

Very similar in appearance to the deadly Water Hemlock, this species is distinguished by a mix of bi-pinnate and tri-pinnate leaves, fine hairs on its stems and leaves, a root that smells like carrots, and occasionally a single dark red flower in its center. Like the cultivated carrot, the wild carrot root is edible while young, but quickly becomes too woody to consume. A teaspoon of crushed seeds has long been used as a form of natural birth control; its use for this purpose was first described by Hippocrates over 2,000 years ago. Research conducted on mice has offered a degree of confirmation for this use—it was found that wild carrot disrupts the implantation process, which reinforces its reputation as a contraceptive. Chinese studies have also indicated that the seeds block progesterone synthesis, which could explain this effect.

It is recommended that, as with all herbal remedies and wild food gathering, one should use appropriate caution. Extra caution should be used in this case, as it bears close resemblance to a dangerous species (see Water Hemlock). The leaves of the wild carrot can cause phytophotodermatitis, so caution should also be used when handling the plant.

The wild carrot, when freshly cut, will draw or change color depending on the color of the water it is in. Note that this effect is only visible on the “head” or flower of the plant. Carnation also exhibits this effect. This occurrence is a popular science experiment in primary grade school.

Garden Angelica (Angelica archangelica; syn. Archangelica officinalis Hoffm., Archangelica officinalis var. himalaica C.B.Clarke) is a biennial plant from the umbelliferous family Apiaceae. Alternative English names are Holy Ghost, Wild Celery, and Norwegian angelica. During its first year it only grows leaves, but during its second year its fluted stem can reach a height of two meters (or six feet). Its leaves are composed of numerous small leaflets, divided into three principal groups, each of which is again subdivided into three lesser groups. The edges of the leaflets are finely toothed or serrated. The flowers, which blossom in July, are small and numerous, yellowish or greenish in colour, are grouped into large, globular umbels, which bear pale yellow, oblong fruits. Angelica only grows in damp soil, preferably near rivers or deposits of water. Not to be confused with the edible Pastinaca sativa, or Wild Parsnip.

Angelica archangelica grows wild in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland, mostly in the northern parts of the countries. It is cultivated in France, mainly in the Marais Poitevin, a marsh region close to Niort in the départment Deux-Sèvres.

 Usage/History

From the 10th century on, angelica was cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal plant, and achieved great popularity in Scandinavia in the 12th century and is still used today, especially in Sami culture. A flute-like instrument with a clarinet-like sound can be made of its hollow stem, probably as a toy for children. Linnaeus reported that Sami peoples used it in reindeer milk, as it is often used as a flavoring agent.

In 1602, angelica was introduced in Niort, which had just been ravaged by the plague, and it has been popular there ever since. It is used to flavour liqueurs or aquavits (e.g. Chartreuse, Bénédictine, Vermouth and Dubonnet), omelettes and trout, and as jam. The long bright green stems are also candied and used as decoration.

Angelica is unique amongst the Umbelliferae for its pervading aromatic odour, a pleasant perfume entirely different from Fennel, Parsley, Anise, Caraway or Chervil. One old writer compares it to Musk, others liken it to Juniper. Even the roots are fragrant, and form one of the principal aromatics of European growth – the other parts of the plant have the same flavour, but their active principles are considered more perishable.

Angelica contains a variety of chemicals which have been shown to have medicinal properties. Chewing on angelica or drinking tea brewed from it will cause local anesthesia, but it will heighten the consumer’s immune system. It has been shown to be effective against various bacteria, fungal infections and even viral infections. The essential oil of the roots of Angelica archangelica contains β-terebangelene, C₁₀H₁₆, and other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains β-terebangelene, together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.

Angelica seeds and angelica roots are sometimes used in making absinthe. A seeds of a Persian spice plant known as Golpar (Heracleum persicum) are often erroneously labeled as “angelica seeds.” True angelica seeds are rarely available from spice dealers.

Etymology

Archangelica comes from the Greek word “arkhangelos” (=arch-angel), due to the myth that it was the angel Gabriel who told of its use as medicine. In Finnish it is called väinönputki, in Kalaallisut kuanneq, in Sami fádnu, boska and rássi, in English garden angelica, in German arznei-engelwurz, in Dutch grote engelwortel, in Persian gol-par, in Swedish kvanne, in Norwegian kvann, in Danish kvan and in Icelandic it has the name hvönn.

Parts Used—The roots and leaves for medicinal purposes, also the seeds.

The stems and seeds for use in confectionery and flavouring and the preparation of liqueurs.  The dried leaves, on account of their aromatic qualities, are used in the preparation of hop bitters.  The whole plant is aromatic, but the root only is official in the Swiss, Austrian and German Pharmacopoeias. Angelica roots should be dried rapidly and placed in air-tight receptacles. They will then retain their medicinal virtues for many years.

The root should be dug up in the autumn of the first year, as it is then least liable to become mouldy and worm-eaten: it is very apt to be attacked by insects. Where very thick, the roots should be sliced longitudinally to quicken the drying process.  The fresh root has a yellowish-grey epidermis, and yields when bruised a honeycoloured juice, having all the aromatic properties of the plant. If an incision is made in the bark of the stems and the crown of the root at the commencement of spring, this resinous gum will exude. It has a special aromatic flavour of musk benzoin, for either of which it can be substituted.

The dried root, as it appears in commerce, is greyish brown and much wrinkled externally, whitish and spongy within and breaks with a starchy fracture, exhibiting shining, resinous spots. The odour is strong and fragrant, and the taste at first sweetish, afterwards warm, aromatic, bitterish and somewhat musky. These properties are extracted by alcohol and less perfectly by water.

If the plants are well grown, the leaves may be cut for use the summer after transplanting. Ordinarily, it is the third or fourth year that the plant develops its tall flowering stem, of which the gathering for culinary or confectionery use prolongs the lifetime of the plant for many seasons. Unless it is desired to collect seed, the tops should be cut at or before flowering time. After producing seed, the plants generally die, but by cutting down the tops when the flower-heads first appear and thus preventing the formation of seed, the plants may continue for several years longer, by cutting down the stems right at their base, the plants practically become perennial, by the development of side shoots around the stool head.

The parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) is a root vegetable related to the carrot. Parsnips resemble carrots, but are paler than most of them and have a stronger flavor. Like carrots, parsnips are native to Eurasia and have been eaten there since ancient times. Zohary and Hopf note that the archeological evidence for the cultivation of the parsnip is “still rather limited,” and that Greek and Roman literary sources are a major source about its early use, but warn “there are some difficulties in distinguishing between parsnip and carrot (which, in Roman times, were white or purple) in classical writings since both vegetables seem to have been sometimes called pastinaca yet each vegetable appears to be well under cultivation in Roman times.”^[2]

Until the potato arrived from the New World, its place in dishes was occupied by the parsnip and other root vegetables such as the turnip. Parsnips can be boiled, roasted or used in stews, soups and casseroles. In some cases, the parsnip is boiled and the solid portions are removed from the soup or stew, leaving behind a more subtle flavor than the whole root and contributing starch to thicken the dish. Roasted parsnip is considered an essential part of Christmas dinner in some parts of the English-speaking world and frequently features in the traditional Sunday Roast. Parsnips can also be fried, or be eaten raw.

The parsnip originates in the Mediterranean region and originally was the size of a baby carrot when full grown. When the Roman Empire expanded north through Europe the Romans brought the parsnip with them. They found that the parsnip grew bigger the further north they went. While folk etymology sometimes assumes the name is a portmanteau of parsley and turnip, it actually comes from a Latin word for “forked”, plus the -nip ending because it was assumed to be a kind of turnip. It is among the closest relatives of actual parsley, which can be bred to develop a very parsnip-like root.

Parsnips are not grown in warm climates, since frost is necessary to develop their flavor. The parsnip is a favorite with gardeners in areas with short growing seasons. Sandy, loamy soil is preferred; silty, clay, and rocky soils are unsuitable as they produce short forked roots. Seeds can be planted in early spring, as soon as the ground can be worked. Harvesting can begin in late fall after the first frost, and continue through winter until the ground freezes over. More than almost any other vegetable seed, parsnip seed significantly deteriorates in viability if stored for long, so it is advisable to use fresh seed each year.

In Roman times, parsnips were believed to be an aphrodisiac. In the United States, this plant was introduced fairly early in history by British colonists as a root vegetable. It was thereafter replaced in popularity by the potato in the mid-nineteenth century and consequently escaped from cultivation, so today most states have wild parsnip on their list of noxious weeds or invasive species. Parsnip is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including its namesake, the Parsnip swallowtail and also the Common Swift, Garden Dart, and Ghost Moth.

Nutritional properties

The parsnip is richer in vitamins and minerals than its close relative the carrot. It is particularly rich in potassium with 600 mg per 100 g. The parsnip is also a good source of dietary fiber. 100 g of parsnip contains 55 calories (230 kJ) energy. Some people can have an allergic reaction to parsnip, and parsnip leaves may irritate the skin.

Picking of wild parsnip may cause phytophotodermatitis, as is the case with parsley and celery.  When picking wild vegetables it is easy to mistake poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) for parsnip with deadly results. All parts of this hemlock are poisonous: leaves, stem, roots, and fruit. Poison hemlock contains volatile alkaloids that have been used as poisons since ancient times. The best way to differentiate it from parsnip are purple streaks and blotches on a smooth hairless stem. Other ways include the small wispy flowers and fernlike leaves which vary slightly from those on the parsnip.

Cicuta virosa (Cowbane or Northern Water Hemlock) is a species of Cicuta, native to northern and central Europe, northern Asia and northwestern North America. It is a perennial herbaceous plant which grows up to 1–2 m tall. The stems are smooth, branching, swollen at the base, purple-striped, and hollow except for partitions at the junction of the leaves and stem. In cross section the stems have one flat side and the other sides are rounded. The leaves are alternate, tripinnate, only coarsely toothed, unlike the ferny, lacy leaves found in many other members of the family Apiaceae. The flowers are small, white and clustered in umbrella shaped inflorescences typical of the family. The many flowered umbellets have unequal pedicels that range from 5 to 11 cm long during fruiting. An oily, yellow liquid oozes from cuts to the stems and roots. This liquid has a rank smell resembling that of parsnips, carrots or mice. The plant may be mistaken for parsnip due to its clusters of white tuberous roots.

It grows in wet meadows, along streambanks and other wet and marshy areas. The yellow resin contains cicutoxin, which disrupts the workings of the central nervous system. In humans, cicutoxin rapidly produces symptoms of nausea, emesis and abdominal pain, typically within 60 minutes of ingestion. This can lead to tremors and seizures. A single bite of the root (which has the highest concentration of cicutoxin) can be sufficient to cause death. In animals the toxic dose and the lethal dose are nearly the same. One gram of water hemlock per kilogram of weight will kill a sheep and 230 grams is sufficient to kill a horse. Due to the rapid onset of symptoms, treatment is usually unsuccessful. There has been some dispute whether it was a hemlock of the genus Cicuta or the genus Conium which was used in ancient Greece as state poison. This poison was administered as a method of capital punishment and certainly the Greek philosopher Socrates drank a cup of some kind of hemlock infusion at his execution in 399 BC. Cicuta virosa is however primarily a northern European species, rare or absent from the Mediterranean region, making its use in Greece unlikely. See Poison hemlock for more information.

The typical dose, however, was not always immediately fatal. Sometimes it was necessary to administer a second cup of the poison.

…having drunk all the Hemlock juice, the quantity was found insufficient and the executioner refused to prepare more unless he was paid 12 drachmas.

—from an account of the execution of Phocion

Considering the toxicity of Water Hemlock, this may be a case of misidentification.

In the past this plant has had a number of colorful names including Beaver-poison, Children’s-bane, Snakeweed and Musquash-poison.

By far the most familiar species is Conium maculatum (Hemlock or Poison Hemlock), the most common of several species of hemlock noted for their toxicity. It is a herbaceous biennial plant which grows between 1.5–2.5 m tall, with a smooth green stem, usually spotted or streaked with red or purple on the lower half of the stem. The leaves are finely divided and lacy, overall triangular in shape, up to 50 cm long and 40 cm broad. The flowers are small, white, clustered in umbels up to 10–15 cm across. The plant is often mistaken for fennel, parsley or wild carrot although the characteristic stem hairs of the wild carrots are missing. The Conium root is fleshy, white and often unbranched and can be mistaken for parsnip. When crushed, the leaves and root emit a rank, unpleasant odour often compared to that of parsnips.

Hemlock is known by several commoames. As well as the American “Poison hemlock” and the Irish “Devil’s porridge”, there are also Beaver Poison, Herb Bennet (not to be confused with the geranium of that name), Musquash Root, Poison Parsley, Spotted Corobane and Spotted Hemlock. The seeds are sometimes called

Conium maculatum is native in temperate regions of Europe, as well as North Africa. Conium maculatum has been introduced and naturalised in many other areas, including Asia, North America and Australia. It is often found on poorly drained soils, particularly near streams, ditches, and other surface water. It is considered an invasive in twelve US states^[1]

Poison hemlock flourishes in the spring, when most other forage is gone. All plant parts are poisonous but once the plant is dried, the poison is greatly reduced, however not gone completely. Hemlock is also known as “poison parsley” or “spotted parsley”.

Poison

Conium contains the alkaloids coniine, N-methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine and g-coniceïne. The most important and toxic of these is coniine. Coniine is a neurotoxin, which disrupts the workings of the peripheral nervous system and is toxic to people and all classes of livestock. Coniine causes death by blocking the neuromuscular junction in a manner similar to curare; this results in an ascending muscular paralysis with eventual paralysis of the respiratory muscles which results in death due to lack of oxygen to the heart and brain. Death can easily be prevented by artificial ventilation until the effects have worn off 48-72 hours later. Ingestion of Poison Hemlock in any quantity can result in respiratory collapse and death. ^[10] For an adult the ingestion of more than 100 mg of coniine (approximately 6 to 8 fresh leaves, or a smaller dose of the seeds or root), may result in fatality.

Socrates

In ancient Greece, hemlock was used to poison condemned prisoners. The most famous victim of hemlock poisoning is the philosopher Socrates. After being condemned to death for impiety in 399 BC, Socrates was given a potent solution of the hemlock plant. Plato described Socrates’ death in the Phaedo

“The man … laid his hands on him and after a while examined his feet and legs, then pinched his foot hard and asked if he felt it. He said ‘No’; then after that, his thighs; and passing upwards in this way he showed us that he was growing cold and rigid. And then again he touched him and said that when it reached his heart, he would be gone. The chill had now reached the region about the groin, and uncovering his face, which had been covered, he said — and these were his last words — ‘Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Pay it and do not neglect it.’ ‘That,’ said Crito, ‘shall be done; but see if you have anything else to say.’ To this question he made no reply, but after a little while he moved; the attendant uncovered him; his eyes were fixed. And Crito when he saw it, closed his mouth and eyes.”^[13]

Although many have questioned whether this is a factual account, careful attention to Plato’s words, modern and ancient medicine, and other ancient Greek sources point to the above account being consistent with Conium poisoning.^[14]

Sometimes the characteristic red spots found on the stem and branches are referred to as “the blood of Socrates” in reference to his death.^{[citatioeeded]} A well-known rock band during the Greek junta was called Socrates Drank the Conium.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a plant species in the genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole species in the genus by most botanists). It is a member of the family Apiaceae (formerly the Umbelliferae). It is a hardy, perennial, umbelliferous herb, with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is generally considered indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean, but has become widely naturalised elsewhere (particularly, it seems, areas colonized by the Romans, ^[1]) and may now be found growing wild in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea-coast and on river-banks.

 

It is a highly aromatic and flavorful herb with culinary and medicinal uses, and is one of the primary ingredients of absinthe. Florence fennel or finocchio is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base that is used as a vegetable. Fennel is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Mouse Moth and the Anise Swallowtail.

Etymology and history

The word fennel developed from the Middle English fenel or fenyl, which came from the Old English fenol or finol, which in turn came from the Latin feniculum or foeniculum, the diminutive of fenum or faenum, meaning “hay”. The Latin word for the plant was ferula, which is now used as the genus name of a related plant. As Old English finule it is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century.

In Ancient Greek, fennel was called marathon (μάραθον), and is attested in Linear B tablets as ma-ra-tu-wo. John Chadwick notes that this word is the origin of the place name Marathon (meaning “place of fennel”), site of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC; however, Chadwick wryly notes that he has “not seen any fennel growing there now”.^[2] In Greek mythology, Prometheus used the stalk of a fennel plant to steal fire from the gods. Also, it was from the giant fennel, Ferula communis, that the Bacchanalian wands of the god Dionysus and his followers were said to have come.^[3]

 

Medicinal uses

Fennel contains anethole, which can explain some of its medical effects: it, or its polymers, act as phytoestrogens.^[12] On account of its aromatic and carminative properties, Fennel is chiefly used medicinally with purgatives to allay their side effects and for this purpose forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound Liquorice Powder.

Fennel water has properties similar to those of anise and dill water: mixed with sodium bicarbonate and syrup, these waters constitute the domestic ‘Gripe Water’, used to ease flatulence in infants; it also can be made into a syrup to treat babies with colic or painful teething. For adults, fennel seeds or tea can relax the intestines and reduce bloating caused by digestive disorders. Essential oil of fennel has these properties in concentration.

Fennel tea, formerly also employed as a carminative, is made by pouring boiling water on a teaspoonful of bruised fennel seeds. Syrup prepared from fennel juice was formerly given for chronic coughs. Fennel is also largely used for cattle condiments. It is one of the plants which is said to be disliked by fleas, and powdered fennel has the effect of driving away fleas from kennels and stables. ^[13] In the Indian subcontinent, Fennel seeds are also eaten raw, sometimes with some sweetener, to improve eyesight.^{[citatioeeded]} Fennel tea can be used as an eye tonic, applied directly like eyedrops or as a compress, to reduce soreness and inflammation of the eye.^{[citatioeeded]}

An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, or aetherolea, or simply as the “oil of” the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An oil is “essential” in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. Essential oils do not form a distinctive category for any medical, pharmacological, or culinary purpose.

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression or solvent extraction. They are used in perfumes,cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.

Essential oils have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.

As the use of essential oils has declined in evidence-based medicine, one must consult older textbooks for much information on their use.^[1][2] Modern works are less inclined to generalize; rather than refer to “essential oils” as a class at all, they prefer to discuss specific compounds, such as methyl salicylate, rather than “oil of wintergreen”.^[3][4]

Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that claims that essential oils and other aromatic compounds have curative effects. Oils are volatilized or diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.

Distillation

Today, most common essential oils — such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus — are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into analembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.

Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), which takes 22 hours to complete through a fractional distillation.

The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water,lemon balm, clary sage and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are therefore not sold.

Expression

Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry are even cheaper.

Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing.

Solvent extraction[edit]

Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression; their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexaneor supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvent are called concretes, which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil soluble) plant material.

Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of nonfragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, which is more polar iature, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by evaporation, leaving behind the absolute.

Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method has many benefits including avoiding petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some “top notes” when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue. An animated presentation describing the process is available for viewing.

Supercritical carbon dioxide is also used for making decaffeinated coffee. Although it uses the same basic principles, it is a different process because of the difference in scale.

Florasols extraction

Florasol (R134a), a refrigerant, was developed to replace Freon. Florasol is an ozone friendly product and it poses little danger to the environment. One advantage is that the extraction of essential oils occurs at or below room temperature so degradation through high temperature extremes does not occur. The essential oils are mostly pure and contain little to no foreign substances

Production quantities

Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990 and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.^[6]

Oil	Tonnes
Sweet orange	12,000
Mentha arvensis	4,800
Peppermint	3,200
Cedarwood	2,600
Lemon	2,300
Eucalyptus globulus	2,070
Litsea cubeba	2,000
Clove (leaf)	2,000
Spearmint	1,300

Although some are suspicious or dismissive towards the use of essential oils in healthcare or pharmacology,^[7] essential oils retain considerable popular use, partly in fringe medicine and partly in popular remedies. Therefore it is difficult to obtain reliable references concerning their pharmacological merits.

Studies have shown that certain essential oils may have the ability to prevent the transmission of some drug-resistant strains of pathogen, specifically Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Candida.

Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. In the stomach, the effect is carminative, relaxing the gastric sphincter and encouraging eructation (belching). Further down the gut, the effect typically is antispasmodic.

Typical ingredients for such applications include eucalyptus oils, menthol, capsaicin, anise and camphor. Other essential oils work well in these applications, but it is notable that others offer no significant benefit. This illustrates the fact that different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Those that do work well for upper respiratory tract and bronchial problems act variously as mild expectorants and decongestants. Some act as locally anaesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive effect.

Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects.With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents, many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.

Many essential oils affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful. They are used in antiseptics and liniments in particular. Typically, they produce rubefacient irritation at first and then counterirritant numbness. Turpentine oil and camphor are two typical examples of oils that cause such effects. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. This is caused by its effect on heat-sensing nerve endings. Some essential oils, such as clove oil or eugenol, were popular for many hundred years in dentistry as antiseptics and local anaesthetics. Thymol is well known for its antiseptic effects.

The Ivy Family (Araliaceae)

Ginseng refers to species within Panax, a genus of 11 species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, in the family Araliaceae. They grow in the Northern Hemisphere in eastern Asia (mostly northern China, Korea, and eastern Siberia), typically in cooler climates; Panax vietnamensis, discovered in Vietnam, is the southernmost ginseng found. This article focuses on the Series Panax ginsengs, which are the adaptogenic herbs, principally Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius. Ginseng is characterized by the presence of ginsenosides.

Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) is not a true ginseng at all, but a different plant that was renamed as “Siberian ginseng” as a marketing ploy; instead of a fleshy root, it has a woody root; instead of ginsenosides, eleutherosides are present. It is another adaptogen. (see below).

Etymology

The English word ginseng derives from the Chinese term rénshēn (simplified: 人参; traditional: 人蔘), literally “man root” (referring to the root’s characteristic forked shape, resembling the legs of a man). The English pronunciation derives from a southern Chinese reading, similar to Cantonese jên shên (Jyutping: jan1sam1). The botanical/genus name Panax means “all-heal” in Greek, sharing the same origin as “panacea,” and was applied to this genus because Linnaeus was aware of its wide use in Chinese medicine as a muscle relaxant.

Traditional uses

Both American and Panax (Asian) ginseng roots are taken orally as adaptogens, aphrodisiacs, nourishing stimulants,^{[citatioeeded]} and in the treatment of type II diabetes, including sexual dysfunction in men. The root is most often available in dried form, either whole or sliced. Ginseng leaf, although not as highly prized, is sometimes also used; as with the root it is most often available in dried form. This ingredient may also be found in some popular energy drinks: usually the “tea” varieties or functional foods. Usually ginseng is in subclinical doses and it does not have measurable medicinal effects. It can be found in cosmetic preparations as well, with similar lack of effect. Ginseng root can be double steamed with chicken meat as a soup. (See samgyetang.)

Modern science and ginseng

It has been difficult to verify the medicinal benefits of ginseng using science, as there are contradictory results from different studies, possibly due to the wide variety and quality of ginseng used in studies. High-quality studies of the effects of ginseng are rare.^[1]

Ginseng is promoted as an adaptogen (a product that increases the body’s resistance to stress), one which can to a certain extent be supported with reference to its anticarcinogenic and antioxidant properties,^[2] although animal experiments to determine whether longevity and health were increased in the presence of stress gave negative results.^[3]

A comparative, randomized and double-blind study at the National Autonomous University of Mexico indicates it may be “a promising dietary supplement” when assessed for an increase in quality of life ^[4]. It should be noted, however, that exclusion rates in this study were high. 124 participants were excluded from this study “due to lack of compliance with the treatment” whereas 164 participants in the control group and 338 participants in the ginseng group completed the study.

P. ginseng appear to inhibit some characteristics associated with cancer in animal models; nevertheless, this effect is unclear in humans.^[5]

 There are references in literature, including authoritative compendiums, that show interactions with ginseng. Herbalist Jonathan Treasure of the United States National Institute of Mental Health traces the growth of misinformation on an alleged adverse herb-drug interaction between the monoamine oxidase inhibitor phenelzine and Asian ginseng (P. ginseng C.A. Meyer). This originally was mentioned in a 1985 editorial by Shader and Greenblatt in the Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. Shader and Greenblatt devoted a couple of lines to the case of 64 year-old woman who took an undisclosed dose for an undisclosed time of a dietary supplement product called “Natrol High” while concurrently taking phenelzine 60 mg qd. She experienced symptoms of “insomnia, headache, and tremulousness”. Treasure contacted Natrol by email and discovered within ten minutes that there was no P. ginseng in the formula, but instead Eleutherococcus which was then called by the popular name “Siberian ginseng” and it was given in a subclinical dosage mixed with a variety of other herbs. The purported interaction effects are well-known side effects of phenelzine alone, which had been given in a high dosage and are not at all suggestive of Eleutherococcus. However this misinformed article with a misidentified herb has been picked up in literature searches, megastudies and is now documented by conventional medical authorities such as Stockley’s, and is repeated in several botanical monographs e.g. World Health Organization (WHO 1999).^[6][7][8]

Ginseng and reproductive activity

A 2002 study by the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine (published in the annals of the New York Academy of Sciences) found that in laboratory animals, both Asian and American forms of ginseng enhance libido and copulatory performance. These effects of ginseng may not be due to changes in hormone secretion, but to direct effects of ginseng, or its ginsenoside components, on the central nervous system and gonadal tissues.^[9][10] In males, ginsenosides can facilitate penile erection.^[11] This is consistent with traditional Chinese medicine and Native American medicinal uses of ginseng.

Ginseng is known to contain phytoestrogens.^[12][13][14]

Side effects

According to a Sports Nutrition FAQ published by UMass Amherst, one of P. ginseng’s most common side-effects is the inability to sleep.^[15] However, other sources state that ginseng causes no sleep difficulties.^[16] Other side-effects can include nausea, diarrhea, euphoria, headaches, epistaxis^[17], high blood pressure, low blood pressure, and mastalgia.^[18]

Common classification

  

Ginseng roots in a market in Seoul, 2003

Ginseng alternatives

These mostly adaptogenic plants are sometimes referred to as ginsengs, but they are either from a different family or genus. Only Jiaogulan actually contains compounds closely related to ginsenosides, although ginsenosides alone do not determine the effectiveness of ginseng. Since each of these plants have different uses, one should research their properties before using. Descriptions and differentiation can be found in David Winston and Steven Maimes book Adaptogens

• Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Southern ginseng, aka Jiaogulan)

• Eleutherococcus senticosus (Siberian ginseng)

• Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Prince ginseng)

• Withania somnifera (Indian ginseng, aka Ashwagandha)

• Pfaffia paniculata (Brazilian ginseng, aka Suma)

• Lepidium meyenii (Peruvian ginseng, aka Maca)

• Oplopanax horridus (Alaskan ginseng)

Other plants which are referred to as ginsengs may not be adaptogens (although notoginseng is in the genus Panax):

• Angelica sinensis (Female ginseng, aka Dong Quai)

Panax notoginseng (Known as san qi, tian qi or tien chi, hemostatic ingredient in Yunnan Bai Yao

Eleutherococcus senticosus (formerly Acanthopanax senticosus) is a species of small, woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to Northeastern Asia. In Chinese medicine it is known as cì wǔ jiā (刺五加).^[1] It is commonly called eleuthero, and was previously marketed in the United States as Siberian Ginseng as it has similar herbal properties to those of Panax ginseng. However, it belongs to a different genus in the family Araliaceae, and it is currently illegal in the United States to market eleuthero as Siberian Ginseng since “ginseng” only refers to Panax species.^[2]

The herb grows in mixed and coniferous mountain forests, forming low undergrowth or is found in groups in thickets and edges. E. senticosus is sometimes found in oak groves at the foot of cliffs, very rarely in high forest riparian woodland. Its native habitat is East Asia, China, Japan and Russia. E. senticosus is broadly tolerant of soils, growing in sandy, loamy and heavy clay soils with acid, neutral or alkaline chemistry and including soils of low nutritional value. It can tolerate sun or dappled shade and some degree of pollution. E. senticosus is a decidious shrub growing to 2m at a slow rate. It is hardy to zone 3. It flowers in July in most habitats. The flowers are hermaphroditic and are pollinated by insects.^[3]

E. senticosus is a new addition to Westeratural medicine, but has quickly gained a reputation similar to that of the better known and more expensive Chinese Ginseng. Though the chemical make-up of the two herbs differs, their effects seem to be similar. An extensive list of research on E. senticosus with links to PubMed is available. The herb is an adaptogen, is anticholesteremic, is mildly anti-inflammatory, is antioxidant, is a nervine and an immune tonic. It is useful when the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) is depleted. Symptoms of this condition include fatigue, stress, neurasthenia and sore muscles associated with the hypofunctioning of the endocrine system, and adrenal exhaustion indicated by a quivering tongue, dark circles under the eyes, and dilating/contracting pupils. Eleuthero may Ethnomedical use 

E. senticosus is an adaptogen which has a wide range of health benefits attributed to its use. Currently, most of the research to support the medicinal use of E. senticosus is in Russian or Korean. E. senticosus contains eleutherosides, triterpenoid saponins which are lipophilic and which can fit into hormone receptors. Supporters of E. senticosus as medicine claim it possesses a variety of medicinal properties, such as:

Interactions and side effects

• People with medicated high blood pressure should consult their doctor before taking E. senticosus as it may reduce their need for medication.

• E. senticosus may cause light sleep in some people, principally those who are “wired”. Users are recommended not to take it in the evening.

• E. senticosus will enhance the effectiveness of mycin class antibiotics.

• E. senticosus when purchased from non-GMP sources has occasionally been adulterated with Periploca graeca which can potentiate digoxin or similar drugs: however this is not an interaction of E. senticosus.[2][unreliable source?]

Hedera helix (Common Ivy) is a species of ivy native to most of Europe, from Ireland northeast to southern Scandinavia, south to Spain, and east to Ukraine and also northern Turkey in southwestern Asia. The northern and eastern limits are at about the -2°C winter isotherm, while to the west and southwest, it is replaced by other species of ivy.

 

It is an evergreen climbing plant, growing to 20–30 m high where suitable surfaces (trees, cliffs, walls) are available, and also growing as ground cover where there are no vertical surfaces. It climbs by means of aerial rootlets which cling to the substrate. The leaves are alternate, 50–100 mm long, with a 15–20 mm petiole; they are of two types, with palmately five-lobed juvenile leaves on creeping and climbing stems, and unlobed cordate adult leaves on fertile flowering stems exposed to full sun, usually high in the crowns of trees or the top of rock faces. The flowers are produced from late summer until late autumn, individually small, in 3–5 cm diameter umbels, greenish-yellow, and very rich in nectar, an important late autumn food source for bees and other insects. The fruit are purple-black to orange-yellow berries 6–8 mm diameter, ripening in late winter, and are an important food for many birds, though somewhat poisonous to humans. There are one to five seeds in each berry, which are dispersed by birds eating the berries.^[5][2][6]

 

There are three subspecies

• Hedera helix subsp. helix. Central, northern and western Europe. Plants without rhizomes. Purple-black ripe fruit.

• Hedera helix subsp. poetarum Nyman (syn. Hedera chrysocarpa Walsh). Southeast Europe and southwest Asia (Italy, Balkans, Turkey). Plants without rhizomes. Orange-yellow ripe fruit.

• Hedera helix subsp. rhizomatifera McAllister. Southeast Spain. Plants rhizomatiferous. Purple-black ripe fruit.

Ethnomedical Uses

In the past, the leaves and berries were taken orally as an expectorant to treat cough and bronchitis.^[12] In 1597, the British herbalist John Gerard recommended water infused with ivy leaves as a wash for sore or watering eyes. Because of toxins also contained in the plant, it should only be used under the consultation of a qualified practitioner.^[14] The leaves can cause severe contact dermatitis in some people.

Ecological damage

Hedera helix is considered an invasive species in a number of areas to which it has been introduced, such as Australia and the United States

 

 

The Horse Chestnut Family (Hippocastanaceae)

 

Aesculus hippocastanum is a large deciduous tree, commonly known as Horse-chestnut or Conker tree. It is native to a small area in the mountains of the Balkans in southeast Europe, in small areas in northern Greece, Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, and Bulgaria (Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Balkan mixed forests).^[1] It is widely cultivated. It grows to 36 m tall, with a domed crown of stout branches, on old trees the outer branches often pendulous with curled-up tips. The leaves are opposite and palmately compound, with 5-7 leaflets; each leaflet is 13-30 cm long, making the whole leaf up to 60 cm across, with a 7-20 cm petiole. The flowers are usually white with a small red spot; they are produced in spring in erect panicles 10-30 cm tall with about 20-50 flowers on each panicle. Usually only 1-5 fruit develop on each panicle; the fruit is a green, softly spiky capsule containing one (rarely two or three) nut-like seeds called conkers or horse-chestnuts. Each conker is 2-4 cm diameter, glossy nut-brown with a whitish scar at the base.

The name is very often given as just ‘Horse-chestnut’ or ‘Horse Chestnut’; the addition of ‘Common’ to the name helps distinguish it from other species of horse-chestnut. Despite its commoame, the Horse-chestnut is not related to the Chestnuts (Castanea), which are members of the Beech faimily (Fagaceae). The Horse-chestnut is in the Buckeye family (Hippocastanaceae) and is in the same genus as other buckeyes, Aesculus. The Horse-chestnut has its commoame due to the husks of the conkers being spiny and the conkers themselves shiny brown like the Chestnuts.^[3] It is also claimed that the name is derived from the horse-shoe mark left on the twig after the leaf drops in Autumn.

Cultivation for its spectacular spring flowers is successful in a range of climatic conditions provided summers are not too hot, with trees being grown as far north as Edmonton, Alberta,^[4] the Faroe Islands, and Harstad, Norway. In more southern areas, growth is best in cooler mountain climates.

In Britain and Ireland, the nuts are used for the popular children’s game conkers. During the two world wars, horse-chestnuts were used as a source of starch which in turn could be used via the Clostridium acetobutylicum fermentation method devised by Chaim Weizmann to produce acetone. This acetone was then used as a solvent which aided in the process of ballistite extrusion into cordite, which was then used in military armaments.The nuts, especially those that are young and fresh, are slightly poisonous, containing alkaloid saponins and glucosides. Although not dangerous to touch, they cause sickness when eaten. Some mammals, notably deer, are able to break down the toxins and eat them safely. They are reputed to be good for horses with wind, but this is unproven and feeding them to horses is not advisable. The saponin aescin, however, has been used for health purposes (such as varicose veins, edema, sprains) and is available in food supplements, as is a related glucoside aesculin.

In the past, Horse-chestnut seeds were used in France and Switzerland for whitening hemp, flax, silk and wool. They contain a soapy juice, fit for washing of linens and stuffs, for milling of caps and stockings, etc., and for fulling of cloth. For this, 20 horse-chestnut seeds were sufficient for six liters of water. They were peeled, then rasped or dried, and ground in a malt or other mill. The water must be soft, either rain or river water; hard well water will not work. The nuts are then steeped in cold water, which soon becomes frothy, as with soap, and then turns milky white. The liquid must be stirred well at first, and then, after standing to settle, strained or poured off clear. Linen washed in this liquid, and afterwards rinsed in clear running water, takes on an agreeable light sky-blue colour. It takes spots out of both linen and wool, and never damages or injures the cloth.

In Bavaria the chestnut is the typical tree for a beer garden. Originally they were planted for their deep shade which meant that beer cellar owners could cut ice from local rivers and lakes in winter to cool the Märzen Lager beer well into summer. Nowadays guests enjoy the shade to keep their heads cool – even after the second Maß (a mug with a liter of beer).

The  Mulberry Family (Moraceae)

The Common fig (Ficus carica) is a large, deciduous, shrub or small tree native to southwest Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region (from Greece to Pakistan). It grows to a height of 3-10m tall, with smooth grey bark. The leaves are 12–25 cm long and 10–18 cm across, and deeply lobed with three or five lobes. The fruit is 3–5 cm long, with a green skin sometimes ripening towards purple. The sap of the tree’s green parts is an irritant to human skin.

The Common Fig is widely grown for its edible fruit throughout its natural range in Iran and also in the rest of the Mediterranean region and other areas of the world with a similar climate, including California, Oregon, Texas and Washington in the United States, Nuevo León and Coahuila in Northeastern Mexico as well as Australia, Chile and South Africa. Fig can also be found in continental climate with hot summer, as north as Hungary, and can be picked twice or three times a year.Thousands of cultivars, most unnamed, have been developed or come into existence as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. It has been an important food crop for thousands of years, and was also thought to be highly beneficial in the diet.

The edible fig is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans. Nine subfossil figs of a parthenocarpic type dating to about 9400–9200 BC were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). The find predates the domestication of wheat, barley and legumes, and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture. It is proposed that they may have been planted and cultivated intentionally, one thousand years before the next crops were domesticated (wheat and rye).^[1]

Figs were also a common food source for the Romans. Cato the Elder, in his De Agri Cultura, lists several strains of figs grown at the time he wrote his handbook: the Mariscan, African, Herculanean, Saguntine, and the black Tellanian (De agri cultura, ch. 8). The fruits were used, among other things, to fatten geese for the production of a precursor of foie gras.

Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and used in jam-making. Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well. In Bengal, the fruit is called Dumur. It is cooked as a vegetable and is believed to be good for heart ailments. It is called Anjeer (अंजीर) in Hindi and used in sweets apart from other usage in India.

FAO reports the 2005 fig-production was 1,057,000 tonnes; Turkey was the top fig-producer (285,000 tonnes), followed by Egypt (170,000 tonnes) and other Mediterranean countries.

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  Aydın, İzmir and Muğla region, which used to be called antique Caria region, are the top fig-producers in Turkey.

Figs and health

Figs are one of the highest plant sources of calcium and fiber. According to USDA data for the Mission variety, dried figs are richest in fiber, copper, manganese, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and vitamin K, relative to humaeeds. They have smaller amounts of many other nutrients. Figs have a laxative effect and contain many antioxidants. They are good source of flavonoids and polyphenols^. In one study, a 40-gram portion of dried figs (two medium size figs) produced a significant increase in plasma antioxidant capacity

Although commonly referred to as a fruit, the fig fruit is actually the flower of the tree, known as an inflorescence (an arrangement of multiple flowers), a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. The genus Dorstenia, also in the figs family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface. The flower is invisible, as it blooms inside the fruit. The small orifice visible on the middle fruit is a narrow passage, which allows a very specialised wasp, the fig wasp, to enter the fruit and pollinate the flower, whereafter the fruit grows seeds. See Ficus: Fig pollination and fig fruit.

Figs are easy to propagate through several methods. For propagation in the mid-summer months, air layer new growth in August (mid-summer) or insert a hardened off new 6-10″ tip in moist perlite or a sandy soil mix, keeping the new cuttings in a shaded area until new growth appears, then gradually moving into full sun. An alternative propagation method is bending over a taller branch, scratching the bark to reveal the green layer, then pinning the scratched area tightly to the ground. Within a few weeks, new roots will develop and then the rooted piece can be clipped from the mother plant and transplanted where desired.

For spring propagation, before the tree starts new growth, cut 6-10″ tips that have healthy buds at their ends and set into a moist perlite and/or sandy soil mix, and move to a shaded area. Once the plant starts to leaf out bury the whole plant up to the bottom leaf to give the plant a good start.

Most fig varieties grown in the U.S.A. are of the variety that do not require the fig wasp, that is, they are self fertilizing and the fruit grows seeds. However, to propagate by using those seeds is not the preferred method since the above methods of propagation are quicker and more predictable.

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  There is a chapter in the Quraamed after the fig tree, and the fruit is also mentioned in Qur’an in many places. The Prophet Muhammad mentioned figs and then stated, “If I had to mention a fruit that descended from paradise I would say this is it because the paradisiacal fruits do not have pits…eat from these fruits for they prevent hemorrhoids, prevent piles and help gout.” (Bukhari) Since the flower is invisible, there is a Bengali proverb: tumi jeno dumurer phool hoe gele, you have become (invisible like) the dumur flower. The derisive English idiom I don’t care a fig probably originates from the abundance of this fruit.

The Rue Family (Rutaceae)

The lemon is the commoame for Citrus limon. The reproductive tissue surrounds the seed of the angiosperm lemon tree. The lemon is used for culinary and nonculinary purposes throughout the world. The fruit is used primarily for its juice, though the pulp and rind (zest) are also used, primarily in cooking and baking. Lemon juice is about 5% (approximately 0.3 mole per liter) citric acid, which gives lemons a tart taste, and a pH of 2 to 3. This makes lemon juice an inexpensive, readily available acid for use in educational science experiments. Lemons are also known for their sourness. Because of the tart flavor, many lemon-flavored drinks and

candies are available on the market, including lemonade.

Two lemons, one whole and one sliced in half

The exact origin of the lemon has remained a mystery, though it is widely presumed that lemons first grew in India, northern Burma, and China.^[1][2] In South and South East Asia, it was known for its antiseptic properties and it was used as an antidote for various poisons. It was later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around AD 700. The lemon was first recorded in literature in a tenth century Arabic treatise on farming, and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens.^[1][2] It was distributed widely throughout the Arab world and the             

Lemons entered Europe (near southern Italy) no later than the first century AD, during the time of Ancient Rome. However, they were not widely cultivated. The first real lemon cultivation in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the fifteenth century.^[2] It was later introduced to the Americas in 1493 when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola along his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds. It was mainly used as ornament and medicine.^[2] In 1700s and late 1800s, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida and California when lemons began to be used in cooking and flavoring.^[3]

In 1747, James Lind‘s experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding Vitamin C to their diets through lemon juice

The name lemon was originated from Arabic līmūn لیمون and Persian limun through Old Italian and Old French limone.

The Meyer lemon, actually a cross between a lemon and possibly an orange or a mandarin, was named for Frank N. Meyer who first discovered it in 1908. Thin-skinned and slightly less acidic than the Lisbon and Eureka lemons, Meyer lemons require more care when shipping and are not widely grown on a commercial basis.

Culinary uses

Lemons are used to make lemonade, and as a garnish for drinks. Many mixed drinks, soft drinks, iced tea, and water are often served with a wedge or slice of lemon in the glass or on the rim. The average lemon contains approximately 3 tablespoons of juice. Allowing lemons to come to room temperature before squeezing (or heating briefly in a microwave) makes the juice easier to extract. Lemons left unrefrigerated for long periods of time are susceptible to mold. Fish are marinated in lemon juice to neutralize the odor. The acid neutralizes the amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. Lemon juice, alone or in combination with other ingredients, is used to marinate meat before cooking: the acid provided by the juice partially hydrolyzes the tough collagen fibers in the meat (tenderizing the meat), though the juice does not have any antibiotic effects.

Lemon in the process of ripening

• Citric acid – Lemons were the primary commercial source of this substance prior to the development of fermentation-based processes.

• Lemon battery – A popular science experiment in schools involves attaching electrodes to a lemon and using it as a battery to power a light. The electricity generated in this way can also power a small motor. These experiments also work with other fruits and vegetables.

• Sanitary kitchen deodorizer – deodorize, remove grease, bleach stain, and disinfect; when mixed with baking soda, lemon can remove stains from plastic food storage containers.^[8]

• Lemon hair lightener – Lemon juice applied to the hair can work as a natural hair lightener.^{[citatioeeded]}

• Insecticide – The d-limonene in lemon oil is used as a non-toxic insecticide treatment. See orange oil.

• Acne Treatment – Applying lemon juice to facial blemishes is a popular form of treating acne.^{[citatioeeded]}

• Skin bleach – Lemon juice is also believed by many to lighten the skin when applied topically, as it has been suggested that the acids it contains inhibits melanin production.^{[citatioeeded]} The effectiveness, however, is largely a subject of debate.

• Fresh squeezed lemon in a glass of ample water is said to cleanse the liver. It is also said that lemon helps to stimulate the metabolism.

• Antibacterial uses because it has a low pH

• Lemon is used in facial masks for refreshing the skin.

• Wood treatment – the traditional lemon oil used on the unsealed rosewood fingerboards of guitars and other stringed instruments is not made from lemons. It’s a different product all together, made from mineral oil and a solvent, usually naphtha, and got its name from its color and tart smell, and should not be confused with the corrosive oil of lemons.

• Lemon juice is often used to clean the inside of animal skins prior to taxidermy.^{[citatioeeded]}

• Natural deodorants are generally made from lemon extracts. Raw lemon can be used as a short term deodorant.^{[citatioeeded]}

• A halved lemon is used as a finger moistener for those counting large amounts of bills such as tellers and cashiers.

• Aromatherapy – Researchers at Ohio State University reveals that lemon oil aroma may enhance your mood, and relax you.

• A halved lemon dipped in salt or baking powder can be used to brighten copper cookware. The acid cuts through the tarnish and the abrasives assist the cleaning.

Lemon alternatives

Several other plants have a similar taste to lemons. In recent times, the Australian bush food lemon myrtle has become a popular alternative to lemons.^[10] The crushed and dried leaves and edible essential oils have a strong, sweet lemon taste but contaio citric acid. Lemon myrtle is popular in foods that curdle with lemon juice, such as cheesecake and ice cream. Limes are often used instead of lemons.

The Buckthorn Family (Rhamnaceae)

The Buckthorns (Rhamnus) are a genus (or two genera, if Frangula is treated as distinct) of about 100 species of shrubs or small trees from 1-10 m tall (rarely to 15 m), in the buckthorn family Rhamnaceae. They are native throughout the temperate and subtropical Northern Hemisphere, and also more locally in the subtropical Southern Hemisphere in parts of Africa and South America. Some species are invasive outside their natural ranges.

 

Both deciduous and evergreen species occur. The leaves are simple, 3-15 cm long, and arranged either alternately or in opposite pairs. One distinctive character of many buckthorns is the way the veination curves upward towards the tip of the leaf. The plant bears fruits which are dark blue berries. The name is due to the woody spine on the end of each twig in many species. Buckthorns are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species – see list of Lepidoptera that feed on buckthorns.

 

       The Purging Buckthorn or Common Buckthorn (R. cathartica) is a widespread European native species, in the past used as a purgative, though its toxicity makes this a very risky herbal medicine and it is no longer used. Introduced into the United States as a garden shrub, this has become an invasive species in many areas there. It has recently been discovered to be a primary host of the soybean aphid Aphis glycines, a problem pest for soybean farmers across the US. The aphids use the buckthorn as a host for the winter and then spread to nearby soybean fields in the spring.

Another European species, Alder Buckthorn (R. frangula, syn. Frangula alnus) was of major military importance in the 15th to 19th centuries, as its wood provided the best quality charcoal for gunpowder manufacture.

Buckthorns may be confused with Dogwoods, which share the curved leaf venation; indeed, “dogwood” is a local name for R. prinoides in southern Africa, a plant used to make Ethiopian mead and known as “gesho” in Ethiopia. The two plants are easy to distinguish by slowly pulling a leaf apart; in dogwood thin white latex strings can be seen, strings not present in buckthorn

Rhamnus cathartica (Buckthorn, Common Buckthorn or Purging Buckthorn), is a species in the family Rhamnaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia, from the central British Isles south to Morocco, and east to Kyrgyzstan.^[1][2] It is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 6–8 m tall, with grey-brown bark and spiny branches. The leaves are elliptic to oval, 2.5–9 cm long and 1.2–3.5 cm broad; they are green, turning yellow in autumn, and are arranged somewhat variably in opposite to subopposite pairs or alternately. The flowers are yellowish-green, with four petals; they are dioecious and insect pollinated. The fruit is a globose black drupe 6–10 mm diameter containing two to four seeds; it is mildly poisonous for people, but readily eaten by birds, which disperse the seeds in their droppings.^[3][4]

The species was originally named by Linnaeus as Rhamnus catharticus, but this

spelling was corrected to cathartica as the genus name Rhamnus is of feminine gender.^[5]

Food plant of the Brimstone butterfly. The sulphur-yellow males are indicative of the plants precence. The species is naturalised and sometimes invasive in parts of North America.^[2][7]

The Sea Buckthorn Family (Eleagnáceae)

         Hippophae rhamnoides, also known as (Common) Sea-buckthorn, is a species in the family Elaeagnaceae. Common Sea-buckthorn branches are dense and stiff, and very thorny. The leaves are a distinct pale silvery-green, lanceolate, 3-8 cm long and less than 7 mm broad. It is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants. The brownish male flowers produce wind-distributed pollen. Flowers in April.

Medicinal uses

A high-quality medical oil is produced from the fruit of sea buckthorn and used in the treatment of cardiac disorders. Russian cosmonauts have used its oil for protection against radiation burns in space.^{[citatioeeded]} Overall the berries have proven to be among the most nutritious fruits known.^{[citatioeeded]}

The Honeysuckle Family (Caprifoliaceae)

Sambucus nigra^[1] is a species of elder native to most of Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. It is most commonly called just Elder or Elderberry, but also Black Elder, European Elder, European Elderberry, European Black Elderberry^[2][3], Common Elder, or Elder Bush when distinction from other species of Sambucus is needed. It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations.

 

Viburnum opulus (Guelder Rose, Water Elder, European Cranberrybush, Cramp Bark, Snowball Tree) is a species of Viburnum, native to Europe and Asia. Some botanists also treat the closely related North American species Viburnum trilobum as a variety of it (as Viburnum opulus var. americanum Ait.), or a subspecies, Viburnum opulus subsp. trilobum (Marshall) Clausen. The name appears to have originated because a popular cultivar, the Snowball tree (see Cultivation and uses) supposedly first originated in the Dutch province of Guelderland.^[1]

  

It is a deciduous shrub growing to 4-5 m tall. The leaves are opposite, three-lobed, 5-10 cm long and broad, with a rounded base and coarsely serrated margins; they are superficially similar to the leaves of some maples, most easily distinguished by their somewhat wrinkled surface with impressed leaf venation. The leaf buds are green, with are valvate bud scales.

The hermaphrodite flowers are white, produced in corymbs 4-11 cm diameter at the top of the stems; each corymb comprises a ring of outer sterile flowers 1.5-2 cm diameter with conspicuous petals, surrounding a center of small (5 mm), fertile flowers; the flowers are produced in early summer, and pollinated by insects. The fruit is a globose bright red drupe 7-10 mm diameter, containing a single seed. The seeds are dispersed when birds eat the fruit, then deposit the seeds in another location in their droppings.

 Cultivation and uses

It is commonly grown as an ornamental plant for its flowers and berries, growing best on moist, moderately alkaline soils, though tolerating most soil types well. Several cultivars have been selected, including ‘Roseum’ (synonym ‘Sterile’) (“Snowball Tree”), in which all the flowers are only of the larger sterile type, making it more conspicuous, but it does not produce any fruit.

Snowball bush is a name often given to Viburnum opulus for its white clusters of flowers that appear in spring. There is some confusion, as there are a few other bushes, including other members of the Viburnum genus, also referred to as “snowball bush”. It is naturalised in North America, where it has been misleadingly re-named as “European Cranberrybush” (it is not a cranberry).

The fruit is edible in small quantities, with a very acidic taste; it can be used to make jelly. It is however very mildly toxic, and may cause vomiting or diarrhea if eaten in large amounts (Plants for a Future).

The dried bark is used in a tincture, known as “Cramp Bark,” to alleviate painful menstrual cramps. This herb is mainly used for treating feminine problems like menstrual cramps, postpartum discomfort, preventing miscarriages and internal

The Sumac Family (Anacardiaceae)

Smoketree or Smoke bush (Cotinus) is a genus of two species of flowering plants in the family Anacardiaceae, closely related to the sumacs (Rhus). They are large shrubs or small trees, native to the warm temperate Northern Hemisphere. The leaves are deciduous, alternate, simple oval shape, 3-13 cm long. The flowers are clustered in a large open terminal panicles 15-30 cm long with a fluffy grayish-buff appearance resembling a cloud of smoke over the plant, from which the name derives. The fruit is a small drupe with a single seed. Often classified in Rhus in the past, they are distinguished by the leaves being simple (not pinnate) and the ‘smoke-like’ fluffy flower heads.

The American Smoketree (Cotinus obovatus, syn. Rhus cotinoides) is native to the southeastern United States, from Tennessee south to Alabama and west to eastern Texas. It is a larger plant, frequently becoming a small tree up to 10-12 m tall and with a trunk up to 25 cm diameter. The leaves are also larger, 6-13 cm long; it also has varied but very bright fall color, usually brighter than the Eurasian species. The flower heads are usually sparser than in C. coggygria.

The smoketrees, particularly C. coggygria, are popular garden shrubs. Several bronze or purple-leaved cultivars of C. coggygria have been selected, with warm pink inflorescences set against purple-black foliage; the commonest in commerce are ‘Notcutt’s Variety’ and ‘Royal Purple’. When brought into cultivation together, the two specie will form hybrids; some garden cultivars are of this parentage.

Cultivation is best in dry, infertile soils, which keeps the growth habit more compact and also improves the autumn colour; when planted in fertile soil, they become large, coarse and also tend to be short-lived, succumbing to verticillium wilt disease. Both species can be coppiced in early spring, to produce first-year shoots up to 2 m tall with large handsome leaves, but no “smoke”.

It is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 4–6 m (rarely to 10 m) tall. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, 10–30 cm long, pinnate with five to seven (rarely nine) leaflets, the leaflets 5–12 cm long and 3–5 cm broad, with a serrated margin. The hermaphrodite flowers are borne in large corymbs 10–25 cm diameter in mid summer, the individual flowers white, 5–6 mm diameter, with five petals; they are pollinated by flies. The fruit is a dark purple to black berry 3–5 mm diameter, produced in drooping clusters in the late autumn; they are an important food for many fruit-eating birds, notably Blackcaps.

This plant is used as a medicinal plant and also used as a ornamental plant. It is cited as a poisonous plant to mammals as well as cited as a weed.^[4] All parts of the plant except for the flowers and ripe berries (but including the ripe seeds) are poisonous, containing the cyanogenic glycoside sambunigrin (C₁₄H₁₇NO₆, CAS number 99-19-4).^[5] The bark contains calcium oxalate crystals.

• The flowerheads are commonly used in infusions, giving a very common refreshing drink in Northern Europe and Balkans. Commercially these are sold as elderflower cordial, etc.

• The berries are edible after cooking and can be used to make jam, jelly, chutney and cordial. They go particularly well with blackberries and with apples – for example in apple pie.

• The strong-smelling foliage was used in the past, tied to a horse‘s mane, to keep flies away while riding.

• Stembark, leaves, flowers, fruits, root extracts are used to treat bronchitis, cough, upper respiratory cold infections, fever^{[citatioeeded]}. The most common extract is known as Sambucol Black Elderberry, which is the original elderberry product{astroturf}, researched and tested in published clinical trials showing it to help support the immune system^{[citatioeeded]}. Sambucol’s unique formulation and extraction process preserves and maximizes the naturally occurring health benefits of the berry{astroturf}.

• In Beerse, Belgium, a variety of Jenever called Beers Vlierke is made from the berries.

Both flowers and berries can be made into elderberry wine, and in Hungary an elderberry brandy is produced (requiring 50 kg of fruit to produce 1 litre of brandy). The alcoholic drink sambuca is not made with elderberries. The dark blue/purple berries can be eaten when fully ripe but are mildly poisonous in their unripe state. ^[6] . The berries can also be made into jam, pies or Pontack sauce. All green parts of the plant are poisonous, containing cyanogenic glycosides (Vedel & Lange 1960). The seeds of red elderberries are toxic and must be removed before eating red elderberries or food products from red elderberries.

Elderberry flowers are sold in Ukrainian and Russian drugstores for relief of congestion, specifically as an expectorant to relieve dry cough and make it productive. The dried flowers are simmered for 15 minutes and the resulting tasty and aromatic tea is poured through a coffee filter. It is better hot, but can be drunk cold. Some individuals may experience an allergic reaction.

         Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, Valerianaceae) is a hardy perennial flowering plant, with heads of sweetly scented pink or white flowers. The flowers are in bloom in the northern hemisphere from June to September. Valerian was used as a perfume in the sixteenth century. Native to Europe and parts of Asia, Valerian has been introduced into North America. It is consumed as food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including Grey Pug.

Other names used for this plant include garden valerian (to distinguish it from other Valeriana species), garden heliotrope (although not related to Heliotropium) and all-heal. The garden flower red valerian is also sometimes referred to as “valerian” but is a different species, from the same family but not particularly closely related.

Valerian, in pharmacology and phytotherapic medicine, is the name of a herb or dietary supplement prepared from roots of the plant, which, after maceration, trituration, dehydration processes, are conveniently packaged, usually into capsules, that may be used for certain effects including sedation and anxiolytic effect.

The amino acid Valine is named after this plant.

Valerian has been used as a medicinal herb since at least the time of ancient Greece and Rome. Hippocrates described its properties, and Galen later prescribed it as a remedy for insomnia. In medieval Sweden, it was sometimes placed in the wedding clothes of the groom to ward off the “envy” of the elves^[1].

Preparation

  The chief constituent of Valerian is a yellowish-green to brownish-yellow oil which is present in the dried root varying from 0.5 to 2 percent though an average yield rarely exceeds 0.8 percent. This variation in quantity is partly explained by location: a dry, stony soil, yielding a root richer in oil than one that is moist and fertile.^[5] The volatile oils that form the active ingredient are extremely pungent, somewhat reminiscent of well-matured cheese or wet dog. Valerian tea should not be prepared with boiling water, as this may drive off the lighter oils.

Medicinal use

Valerian is used for insomnia and other disorders and can be a useful alternative to benzodiazepine drugs

In the United States Valerian is sold as a nutritional supplement. Therapeutic use has increased as dietary supplements have gained in popularity, especially after the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act was passed in 1994. This law allowed the distribution of many agents as over-the-counter supplements, and therefore allowed them to bypass the regulatory requirements of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Valerian is used against sleeping disorders, restlessness and anxiety, and as a muscle relaxant. Valerian often seems only to work when taken over longer periods (several weeks), though many users find that it takes effect immediately. Some studies have demonstrated that valerian extracts interact with the GABA and benzodiazepine receptors. Valerian is also used traditionally to treat gastrointestinal pain and irritable bowel syndrome. However, long term safety studies are missing. As valepotriates may be potential mutagens,^[10] valerian should only be used after consultation with a physician.

Valerian is sometimes recommended as a first-line treatment when benefit-risk analysis dictates. Valerian is often indicated as transition medication when discontinuing benzodiazepines.

Valerian has uses in herbal medicine as a sedative. The main current use of valerian is as a remedy for insomnia, with a recent meta-analysis providing some evidence of effectiveness.^[11] It has been recommended for epilepsy but that is not supported by research (although an analogue of one of its constituents, valproic acid, is used as an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug). Valerian root generally does not lose effectiveness over time.

While shown to be an effective remedy for the reduction of anxiety, it has also been reported to cause agitation, headaches and night terrors in some individuals.^[12] This may be due to the fact that some people lack a digestive conversion property necessary to effectively break down Valerian. One study found that valerian tends to sedate the agitated person and stimulate the fatigued person, bringing about a balancing effect on the system.

Southern Blue Gum or Blue Gum, (Eucalyptus globulus) is an evergreen tree, one of the most widely cultivated trees native toAustralia. They typically grow from 30 to 55 m (98 to 180 ft) tall. The tallest currently known specimen in Tasmania is 90.7 m tall (297 ft).^[1] There are historical claims of even taller trees, the tallest being 101 m (330 ft).^[2] The natural distribution of the species includes Tasmania and

southern Victoria (particularly the Otway Ranges and southern Gippsland). There are also isolated occurrences on King Island and Flinders Island in Bass Strait and on the summit of the You Yangs nearGeelong. There are naturalized non-native occurrences in southern Europe (Galicia, Akamas, Cyprus, and Portugal), southern Africa, New Zealand, western United States (California), Hawaii and Macaronesia, Caucasus (Western Georgia).

The bark sheds often, peeling in large strips. The broad juvenile leaves are borne in opposite pairs on square stems. They are about 6 to 15 cm long and covered with a blue-grey, waxy bloom, which is the origin of the commoame “blue gum”. The mature leaves are narrow, sickle-shaped and dark shining green. They are arranged alternately on rounded stems and range from 15 to 35 cm in length. The buds are top-shaped, ribbed and warty and have a flattened operculum (cap on the flower bud) bearing a central knob. The cream-colored flowers are borne singly in the leaf axils and produce copious nectar that yields a strongly flavored honey. Thefruits are woody and range from 1.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter. Numerous small seeds are shed through valves (numbering between 3 and 6 per fruit) which open on the top of the fruit. It produces roots throughout the soil profile, rooting several feet deep in some soils. They do not form taproots.

The plant was first described by the French botanist Jacques Labillardière in his publications Relation du Voyage à la Recherche de la Pérouse (1800) and Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen (1804).^[6][7] The author collected specimens at Recherche Bay during the d’Entrecasteaux expedition in 1792.^[5]

E. Globulus in Hermosillo, Sonora

Blue gum is one of the most extensively planted eucalypts. Its rapid growth and adaptability to a range of conditions is responsible for its popularity. It is especially well-suited to countries with a Mediterranean-type climate, but also grows well in high altitudes in the tropics.^[8]

It comprises 65% of all plantation hardwood in Australia with approximately 4,500 km² planted.^[9] The tree is widely cultivated elsewhere in the world. It is primarily planted as a pulpwood, and also as an important fuelwood in many countries.

Blue gums have historically been used as street trees but are now regarded as unsuitable by many municipalities due to their rapid growth and mature size.

In California, thousands of E. globulus were planted from the late 1800s onward, notably by the ranch owners as windrows to protect citrus groves from the harsh Santa Ana winds, particularly in Orange County. With the decline and eventual disappearance of the citrus business and rapid suburbanization of the area, the surviving E. globulus became increasingly seen as an important part of the suburban landscape and are currently protected by various city ordinances.

Blue gum timber is yellow-brown, fairly heavy, with an interlocked grain, and is difficult to season.^[10] It has poor lumber qualities due to growth stress problems, but can be used in construction, fence posts and poles.^[11]

The leaves are steam distilled to extract eucalyptus oil. E.globulus is the primary source of global eucalyptus oil production, with China being the largest commercial producer.^[The oil has therapeutic, perfumery, flavoring, antimicrobial and biopesticide properties.^{[14][15][16][17]} Oil yield ranges from 1.0-2.4% (fresh weight), with cineole being the major isolate. E.globulus oil has established itself internationally because it is virtually phellandrene free, a necessary characteristic for internal pharmaceutical use.^[18] In 1870, Cloez, identified and ascribed the name “eucalyptol” — now more often called cineole — to the dominant portion of E. globulus oil.

E. globulus bark contains quinic, dihydroxyphenylacetic and caffeic acids, bis(hexahydroxydiphenoyl (HHDP))-glucose, galloyl-bis(HHDP)-glucose, galloyl-HHDP-glucose, isorhamentin-hexoside, quercetin-hexoside, methylellagic acid (EA)-pentose conjugate, myricetin-rhamnoside, isorhamnetin-rhamnoside, mearnsetin,phloridzin, mearnsetin-hexoside, luteolin and a proanthocyanidin B-type dimer, digalloylglucose and catechin.^[21] The hydrolyzable tannins tellimagrandin I,eucalbanin C, 2-O-digalloyl-1,3,4-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, 6-O-digalloyl-1,2,3-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose, as well as gallic acid and (+)-catechin can also be isolated.Tricetin is a rare flavone aglycone found in the pollen of members of the Myrtaceae, subfamily Leptospermoideae, such as E. globulus.

Literature

1.    Botany / Randy Moore, W.Denis Clark, Kingsley R.Stern, Darrell Vodopich. – Dubuque, IA, Bogota, Boston, Buenos Aires, Caracas,Chicago, Guilford, CT, London, Madrid, Mexico City, Sydney, Toronto: Wm.C.Brown Publishers.- 1994.-

2.    Kindsley R. Stern. Introductory plant biology- Dubuque, Ajowa, Melburne and Australia, Oxford, England: Wm.C.Brown Publishers1994.-P.23-38.

3. Gulko R.M. Explanatory Dictionary of Medicinal Botany- Lviv: LSMU, 2003.-200 p.

4. Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, & S. E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th ed., page 9. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005).

5. Harold C. Bold, C. J. Alexopoulos, and T. Delevoryas. Morphology of Plants and Fungi, 5th ed., page 3. (New York: Harper-Collins, 1987).