N 2. Medical education in Ukraine, Great Britain, and the USA. Nouns. The plural form of nouns.
Medical education in the United States includes educational activities involved in the education and training of medical doctors in the United States, from entry-level training through to continuing education of qualified specialists.
A typical outline of the medical education pathway is presented below; however, medicine is a diverse profession with many options available. For example, some doctors work in pharmaceutical research, occupational medicine (within a company), public health medicine (working for the general health of a population in an area), or join the armed forces.
Medical school
In the
Admissions
Admission into medical school usually requires either three years of undergraduate study (very rare) or a four-year bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university, depending on the medical institution. Nearly all medical schools require the applicant to have attained a bachelor’s degree prior to matriculation. Admissions criteria may include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools, the score on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), application essays, letters of recommendation (most schools require either one letter from the undergraduate institution’s premedical advising committee or a combination of letters from at least one science faculty and one non-science faculty), and interviews.
Beyond objective admissions criteria, many programs look for candidates who have had unique experiences in community service, volunteer-work, international studies, and research. The application essay is the primary opportunity for the candidate to describe her/his reasons for entering a medical career. The essay requirements are usually open-ended to allow creativity and flexibility for the candidate to draw upon their personal experiences/challenges to make her/him stand out amongst other applicants. If granted, an interview serves as an additional way to express these subjective strengths that a candidate may possess.
Most commonly, the bachelor degree is in one of the biological sciences, but not always; in 2005, nearly 40% of medical school matriculants had received bachelor’s degrees in fields other than biology or specialized health sciences. All medical school applicants must, however, complete year-length undergraduate courses with labs in biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics; some medical schools have additional requirements such as biochemistry, calculus, and English.
A student with a bachelor’s degree who has not taken the premedical coursework may complete a postbaccalaureate (postbacc) program. Such programs allow rapid fulfillment of prerequisite course work as well as grade point average improvement. Some postbacc programs are specifically linked to individual medical schools to allow matriculation without a gap year.
Several universities across the
While not necessary for admission, several private organizations have capitalized on this complex and involved process by offering services ranging from single-component preparation(MCAT, essay, etc.) to entire application review/consultation.
Program
Once admitted to medical school, it takes four years to complete a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.). The course of study is divided into two roughly equal components: pre-clinical and clinical. Both allopathic (M.D.) and osteopathic physicians (D.O.) have equal rights and an equal scope of practice in the
Preclinical study generally comprises the first two years and consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in core subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, histology, embryology, microbiology, pathology, pathophysiology, and neurosciences. Once students successfully complete preclinical training, they generally take step one of the medical licensing boards, the USMLE, or the COMLEX.
The clinical component usually occupies the final two years of medical school and takes place almost exclusively on the wards of a teaching hospital or, occasionally, with community-based physicians. The students observe and take part in the care of patients under the supervision of resident and attending physicians. Rotations are required in internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, family medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, neurology, and psychiatry. Beyond these, a variable number of specialty electives are required. During the fourth year, most medical students take Step 2 of the medical licensing boards (USMLE, or COMLEX). Upon completion of medical school, the student gains the title of doctor and the degree of M.D. or D.O., but cannot practice independently until completing at least an internship and also Step 3 of the USMLE or COMLEX.
Many medical schools also offer joint degree programs in which some medical students may simultaneously enroll in master’s or doctoral-level programs in related fields such as a Masters in Business Administration, Masters in Health Care Administration, Masters in Public Health, JD, MALD, and Masters in Health Communication.
Internship
During the last year of medical school, students apply for postgraduate residencies in their chosen field of specialization. These vary in competitiveness depending upon the desirability of the specialty, prestige of the program, and the number of applicants relative to the number of available positions. All but a few positions are granted via a national computer match which pairs an applicant’s preference with the programs’ preference for applicants.
Historically, post-graduate medical education began with a free-standing, one-year internship. Completion of this year continues to be the minimum training requirement for obtaining a general license to practice medicine in most states. However, because of the gradual lengthening of post-graduate medical education, and the decline of its use as the terminal stage in training, most new physicians complete the internship requirement as their first year of residency.
Notwithstanding the trend toward internships integrated into categorical residencies, the one-year “traditional rotating internship” (sometimes called a “transitional year”) continues to exist. Some use it to re-apply to programs into which they were not accepted, while others use it as a year to decide upon a specialty. In addition, five states still require osteopathic physicians to complete a traditional rotating internship before residency.
Residency
Each of the specialties in medicine has established its own curriculum, which defines the length and content of residency training necessary to practice in that specialty. Programs range from three years after medical school for internal medicine to five years for surgery to six or seven for neurosurgery. This does not include research years that may last from one to four years if a PhD degree is pursued. Each specialty training program incorporates an internship year to satisfy the requirements of state licensure.
[edit] Fellowship
Some highly specialized fields require formal training beyond residency. Examples of these include cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery; reproductive endocrinology/infertility, maternal-fetal medicine, gynecologic oncology after obstetrics/gynecology. There are many others for each field of study. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are fellows to denote that they already have completed a residency and are Board Eligible or Board certified in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board. Fellowships often contain a research component.
Continuing education
The physician or surgeon who has completed his or her residency and possibly fellowship training and is in the practice of their specialty is known as an attending physician or consultant. Each specialty has requirements for practitioners to undertake continuing medical education activities.
Medical Education in the
As I explained yesterday, every Monday until I run out of volunteers I’m going to be featuring a description of medical education around the world. Today’s country is the
Getting In:
How old is one when they begin medical school?
It varies depending on if you start right after college (22-ish), take a few years off or go back after a long time out of college. The average age in our class is probably around 26 or 27.
What exams does one have to take to get in?
The Medical College Admissions Test (commonly known as “MCAT”) is the entrance exam for medical school. It’s a 4ish hour computerized exam that covers physical sciences (physics and inorganic chemistry) and biological sciences (biology and organic chemistry), as well as verbal/reading skills and writing abilities.
Is there any required pre-requisite coursework?
Most schools require one year each of Biology with Laboratory, Inorganic Chemistry with Laboratory, Organic Chemistry with Laboratory, Physics with Labratory and English, as well as one semester (half-year) each of Calculus and Biochemistry.
Is it a competitive occupation?
I would say getting into medical school in the
What are you called at this stage of training?
Pre-Med
Being In:
How long is it?
Four years
How are the years broken down?
Two years of basic sciences, two years of clinical training.
Describe your typical day.
1st/2nd Years (“MS1/MS2”): Several hours of lecture a day followed by long stretches of studying and lots of exam-taking. 3rd/4th years (“MS3/MS4”): As best I know, since I’m not quite there yet, in the third and fourth year you basically spend your day in the hospital or clinic seeing patients and receiving instruction from your teaching doctors (“attendings”). There are six 3rd year rotations – Family Practice, Obstetrics/Gynecology, Internal Medicine, Psychiatry, Pediatrics and Surgery, with a shelf exam at the conclusion of each rotation.
If you choose a specialty, when do you have to decide by?
Most people will decide what specialty they want to go into by the end of their 3rd year rotations.
What are you called at this stage of training?
“Medical Student” or “MS” followed by your year in school (1, 2, 3, or 4).
Getting Out:
What exams do you have to take?
We are required to pass the United States Medical Licensing Exam (“USMLE”) prior to working as a doctor. We take “USMLE Step
Do most people graduate?
From what I understand the graduation rate at US medical schools is over 96%. Some people have to repeat years or take a year off, but most people do eventually successfully graduate.
When are you finally considered a “doctor?”
After your 4th year of med school you graduate and are offically an “MD.” (Note: There is a osteopathic medicine degree called “DO” in the
Do you have additional training or do you start working immediately?
In the
What’s the average debt for attendance?
The national average for
What are you called at this stage of training?
After graduation you are officially a “doctor.” For your first year of residency you’ll be considered an “intern” and for the rest of your residency training you will be referred to as a “resident physician.”
Being Out:
What’s the average salary?
The numbers for this are significantly different between specialties and states, so it’s hard to give a true estimate (not to mention, every source you refer to has different information). According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics – in 2008 physicians working in primary care field had total median annual compensation of $186,044, and physicians practicing in medical specialties earned total median annual compensation of $339,738. Here’s a good blog post from KevinMD on the subject of physician compensation in the
Is the job security good?
I don’t think most doctors struggle to find a job, but then again I have never looked for a job as a physician.
Can you go back and choose a different specialty?
If you do your residency in Pediatrics and suddenly decide you would like to become a surgeon you have to re-apply to residency. If you get accepted your pay drops back down to the $40,000/year resident salary and you are required to complete another residency before you can switch fields. So, yes – you can switch specialties, but no – it is not easy or painless.
What are you called at this stage of training?
PGY-1 (Post-Graduate Year 1, this is the first year of residency) = Intern. PGY-2+ you are simply a Resident Physician. Following graduation from residency you are considered an “attending physician” which just signifies that you have completed your full medical training.
Medical Education in
Physicians in
In
In
From the third year the students .study the methods of-eimical examinations and history taking, general pathology, microbiology, pharmacology and community medicine, therapy, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, ophthalmology and others. Senior students have a lot of practical work with patients in clinics, hospitals and out-patient departments. After the three years of clinical practice the students obtain degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery. These degrees give the right to register as a medical practitioner.
After the finals graduates work in hospitals for a year. This period is called internship. After this period a young doctor obtains a «Certificate of Experience» and he or she may work as a medical practitioner.
In
Life Sciences
About the Division
The University has a wealth and depth of experience in the Biosciences, having run both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees for more than 30 years.Teaching in the Division received a rating of excellent in the last Government assessment by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA).
The Division offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses, covering varying aspects of Biomedical, Medical, Forensic Sciences and Biotechnology. In each of these areas, courses are offered at both undergraduate level, i.e. Foundation and BSc Honours degrees, and post graduate level, from MSc by research and taught programmes, through to MPhil and PhD
Undergraduate study
All undergraduate students undertake a research project in their third year, and some students undertake this within clinical, pharmaceutical, medical research laboratories at collaborating, or nearby, institutions.
Excellent facilities
As a result of continuing investment the Division has modern, well-equipped laboratories and other facilities for undergraduate teaching, with more specialised facilities dedicated to post-graduate and staff research and commercial activity. Most staff undertake research or other professional activities, and regularly present their findings at local, national and international conferences. Staff therefore have a good understanding of both academic and applied, or professional, aspects of their subjects that helps us offer courses that not only meet the demands and expectations of the students enrolled on them, but also ensures that our graduates are highly employable.
Professional accreditation
Professional accreditation is an important aspect of this employability. A popular course at the University is the Biomedical Science Degree, which is accredited by the Institute of Biomedical Sciences (IBMS).
As part of this course, placement opportunities for students within National Health Service (NHS) Laboratories can feature as an option. The Physiology laboratories used by the Division also have full accreditation by the British Association of Sport and Exercise Science (BASES). Thus, in addition to gaining a highly applied academic degree, student’s CVs are also developed!
Careers
Students from the Division have gone on to a wide range of careers, e.g. in hospital, university routine and research laboratories as technicians, research assistants or (eventually) managers. Others have gone on to work in pharmaceutical and other industrial and commercial laboratories. Some have chosen to go onto teaching while others have pursued other careers including medical and scientific sales, retailing and business.
Further training
With regards further training, students from the Division have been accepted on medical training programs, such as Medicine and Radiography, some onto overseas veterinary training programmes and some have gone on to undertake MSc’s, PhD’s, etc at both newer and much older universities, including Oxford.
Application routes
Degree programmes in the Division offer flexible entry routes and, in addition to traditional A-level qualifications, we also welcome applicants with HND’s, Foundation Degrees or other qualifications. Individuals who can demonstrate suitable applied learning or experience or professional qualifications, rather than simply academic qualifications, are also invited to make enquiries about our courses.
Medical Universities in
There are thirty-two medical schools in the
The earliest place of medical training in
Charterhouse Square, home to Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry
Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry is the medical and dental school of Queen Mary, University of London.[1] The school was formed in 1995 by the merger of the London Hospital Medical College (the first school to be granted an official charter for medical teaching in 1785) and the Medical College of St Bartholomew’s Hospital (the oldest remaining hospital in the United Kingdom, having been founded in 1123, with medical teaching beginning from that date) and Queen Mary and Westfield College.
The school exists on two main sites, having a presence at the site of both of the former colleges at and near their respective hospitals, St Bartholomew’s Hospital (in Smithfield, City of London and nearby in Charterhouse Square), and the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel, Tower Hamlets with an additional site at Queen Mary’s main (Mile End) campus. A new building (Blizard Building), named after the founder of The London Hospital Medical College, Sir William Blizard, was recently completed at the Royal London site, and houses research laboratories and is the main site for medical undergraduate teaching.
In the 2008 government Research Assessment Exercise, the school was ranked first for the quality of its medical research in
History
St Bartholomew’s and the Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry was formed in 1995 by a merger of St Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical College and the London Hospital Medical College with Queen Mary and Westfield College, now known as Queen Mary, University of London.
The
in the 1930s. At the Royal London, larger premises, still in use by the medical school, were built in
in
The
Between the Wars, students at the Royal London requiring a prerequisite MB (in biology, chemistry and physics) attended
A close association between the two medical colleges was developed following the Royal Commission on Medical Education in 1968, and new links with the then Queen Mary College were established at the same time. In 1989 the pre-clinical teaching at the two medical colleges was merged and sited in the
On 2 March 2011, it was announced that Professor Richard Trembath would succeed Professor Sir Nicholas Wright as Warden of the School in Summer 2011.
Research
The school has a distinguished history in the field of research and teaching, and has been at the forefront in the development of a modern dental and medical curriculum. It serves a diverse population in East London and the wider Thames Gateway, with the differing demographics of
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital is a recognised area of excellence in the fields of cardiovascular and cancer research, whereas the
The school has six research institutes:
1. Barts Cancer Institute, which researches cancer and inflammation, cell signalling, experimental cancer medicine, haemato-oncology, molecular oncology and imaging and tumour biology.
2. Blizard Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, which focuses on surgery, paediatrics, cutaneous, diabetes, gastroenterology, haematology, infectious diseases neuroscience, pathology and health sciences.
3.
4.
5. William Harvey Research Institute is a world class research facility focussing on biochemical pharmacology, orthopaedic diseases, endocrinology, genomics, clinical pharmacology and translational medicine and therapeutics.
6. Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine researches preventive medicine, epidemiology, mathematics and statistics, psychology and psychiatry.
Research Assessment Exercise 2008
The Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) is one of the few ways in which the academic quality of British medical and dental schools can be compared and ranks research by two principal measures: the proportion of work graded 4* and 3* – world-leading or internationally recognised respectively – and the Grade Point Average (GPA) across the whole profile of the submission.
The results of the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), published in December 2008, confirmed Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry as one of the leading medical and dental schools in the
According to the rankings published in the Times Higher Education, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry was consistently ranked in the top five nationally for the following categories:
· Dentistry was ranked 1st equal with
· In Cancer, Barts and The
· The Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, returned in Hospital Subjects, was ranked joint 1st with Cambridge and Edinburgh in terms of 3* and 4* outputs and was joint 7th overall out of 28.
· The Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine, returned in Epidemiology and Public Health, was 2nd out of
· In Health Services Research, Barts and The London’s
· The William Harvey Research Institute, returned in Preclinical and Human Biological Sciences, was ranked 3rd in terms of 3* and 4* outputs, and 4th overall out of 13.
The Complete University Guide gave the medical school an overall ranking of sixth, and the dental school seventh, in the
Barts and The
Barts and The London Students’ Association is the students’ union for the medical and dental school, a largely independent arm of Queen Mary Students’ Union (QMSU) formed when the student unions of St Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical School and the London Hospital Clubs Union merged with QMSU at the time their parent bodies merged in 1995. The Students’ Association has a very distinct culture from that of QMSU, with its own clubs and societies for most sports and activities, competing in the National Association of Medics’ Sports against other schools and universities.
The
UCL has offered education in medicine since 1834 but the current school developed from mergers between UCL and the medical schools of the Middlesex Hospital (founded in 1746) and The Royal Free Hospital (founded as the London School of Medicine for Women in 1874).
Clinical medicine is primarily taught at
The next expansion of medical schools began following the recommendations of the Royal Commission on Medical Education (1965-1968) (the Todd Report), which called for the immediate establishment of new schools in Southampton, Leicester and Nottingham to aid medical education in the United Kingdom; all were built between 1970 and 1980. Medical schools at
History
The main portico of University College London
The
The London School of Medicine for Women was established in 1874, as the first medical school in
In 1998 The Royal Free & University College Medical School (RFUCMS) was formed from the merger of the two medical schools. On 1 October 2008, it was officially renamed
In appreciation of the historic beginnings of
Teaching
The
houses the preclinical facilities of the
The medical school is one of the largest in the country with a yearly intake of 330 students. Undergraduate teaching is spread across three campuses based in Bloomsbury (the Cruciform, University College Hospital, the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Obstetric Hospital), at Archway (the Whittington Hospital and the former Royal Holborn Infirmary) and in Hampstead (the Royal Free Hospital).
It has arguably some of the best clinical sites in the country including: Great Ormond Street Hospital, The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery (Queen’s Square), Moorfields Eye Hospital, The Heart Hospital, The Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital and the Royal National Throat, Nose and Ear Hospital.
The school is widely regarded as one of the best medical schools in the country (frequently ranked betweeumber 1–5 in the country), it has a very distinguished faculty which includes 78 Fellows of the
A report published in November 2005, by the Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI) found that RFUCMS had the highest expenditure per student, an average spend of £50,103 per student, of any medical school in the country, followed by Oxford University Medical School (£42,348) and Imperial College School of Medicine (£38,223).
Course
The course in medicine at UCL leads to the award of the MB BS and BSc (Hons) degrees and takes six years to complete: 2 years of preclinical medicine, 3 years of clinical medicine, and 1 year studying for the intercalated BSc degree, which at UCL is compulsory for all students except postgraduates. UCL offers a wide variety of intercalation degrees ranging from the traditional subjects like anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, to more clinical courses such as Primary Health. Students select their BSc subject by applying through an internal process during the second year of the programme.
Clinical Skills Lab
Teaching of Anatomy in UCC
There is also the opportunity to intercalate a PhD, either by taking an ‘interruption of study’ directly after the intercalated BSc, or as part of the integrated MB PhD programme. The latter has been offered by UCL medical school since 1994 and allows students to be offered the MB BS, BSc and PhD degrees in eight years rather thaine if the PhD is undertaken separately.
Postdoctoral students in the lab
Admission
Admission to the medical school, in common with all 32 medical schools in the
Associated hospitals and institutes
, which opened in 2005.
Hospitals
·
· The Royal Free Hospital
·
·
·
· The
·
·
· Royal National Throat, Nose and
Research institutes
· The UCL Institute of Child Health on
in
· UCL Ear Institute
· UCL Eastman Dental Institute
· UCL Institute of Child Health
· UCL Institute of Neurology
· UCL Institute of Nuclear Medicine
· UCL Institute of Ophthalmology
· UCL Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science
· Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research at UCL
· National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR)
Clubs and societies
As well as being able to join all the UCL clubs and societies, medical students can also join those specifically for them. These clubs and societies are run by the Royal Free,
VIDEO
Higher Education Today: Health Careers
Partners
In the process of a healthcare facility and a hospital investment and development project, Anthony Healthcare Investment & Management Group Corp mainly focuses on working with the following partners around the world in order to make our project successful:
· Health
· Local governments such as Canadian government,
· Global leading hospitals including Cambridge Memorial Hospital, Toronto General Hospital, Queen’s University General Hospital, Queens General Hospital
· World leading health organizations like those leading Canadian hospitals, Canadian Medical Association (CMA), American Medical Association (AMA)
· Leading medical schools and universities such as
· International healthcare investment and management firms
· International healthcare and hospital management firms
Medical Education in
Ukrainian medical education was considered one of world’s best in communist times. Even after the collapse of the
Several countries including
UKRAINE MEDICAL UNIVERSITIES RECORGNISATION & ACCREDITATIONS
1)Foreign student are eligible to take the United States Medical Licensing Examinations and enter Postgraduate Medical (Residency) training in
2)IMED accreditation is recognized by the Education Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) and the Medical Council of Canada (MCC) for eligibility of graduates to obtain certification and Licensure.
3)Ukraine Universities are recognized by the World Health Organization
4) International students are eligible to participate in the United States Medical Licensing Examination & receive ECFMG certification. The ECFMG certification requires all graduates to have passed USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 (both sections), submit a final transcript, and provide a copy of the graduate’s diploma for verification. Once ECFMG certification has been granted the graduates are eligible for Postgraduate Medical education (Residency Training) in the
5)Most Ukraine Medical Universities are recognized by the Indian Medical Council, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council, European Council of Medicine and General Medical Council (limited Registration) of UK.
6)Most Ukraine medical Universities have relations with many Scientific Institutions of former USSR and all over the world, such as The Poland Medical Academy, The Cambridge University, The Virden University, Clinics of Urgent Medicine in Germany, Belgium, Austria and Israel. Medical center of
7)
8)
Most of
General Medicine (Doctor of Medicine Degree) – 6 years course
Dentistry (Doctor of Dentistry Degree) – 5 year course
Pediatrics (Doctor of Medicine Degree) – 6 year course
Pharmacy (Bachelor of Pharmacy Degree) – 5 year course
Nursing (RN) – 3 / 4 year course
It is a six year course awarding “Doctor of Medicine” (MD) degree. This is equivalent to “Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery” (MBBS) degree awarded by Commonwealth countries such as
The medium of instruction is English for all six years for international students. The course is offered in Russian /Ukrainian for local candidates. Candidates studying in English medium for the six years are given language classes for the first two years, so they may be proficient in the local language for conversing with the patients and everyday use.
The Curriculum taught in the University is approved by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Public Health of Ukraine.
Students are formed in small groups of 6-10 for the classes. Due to a small student group, individual attention is possible for each student. For the first two years the students are taught in class. In 2nd year, students are also taught clinical subjects and given clinical training in Hospitals for practical experience.
A student needs to read the textbook and do self-preparation before attending a class. Notes are provided for the same. Students can borrow books from the library or purchase their own books. Students need 100% class attendance. If they are absent, they have to rework the class in the weekend, after due permission from the course teacher.
Each class session is graded. There are internal examinations to be passed. Each year of education is important and should be passed before the student is permitted to graduate. In addition to the university’s internal examination, the Student has to pass State Test (external examination) before graduating the 3rd and 6th year of education. In the year of graduation, the student is tested on practical proficiency on clinical discipline at the patient’s bed (Practical test) and on scientific and theoretical proficiency (Theoretical test). Both have to be passed before graduation.
After graduation, the student can practice or enroll in over 20 specializations offered by the university such as cardiology, clinical medicine, oncology, radiology, public health etc
Dentistry (Stomatology)
It is a five year course. Students are taught basic medical and biological profile and the clinical disciplines for dentistry. On completion of the study the graduates are awarded the “Diploma of a Doctor ” or the degree of BDS. Students are taught theoretical and clinical disciplines such as therapeutic and orthopedic stomatology. The department is well equipped in terms of premises, equipment, teaching aids. A teaching hospital in the center of the city is loaded with patients. Students study the principal problems of dentistry: Dental caries, Periodontitis and diseases of the mucous membrane in the mouth cavity. The principal task of the faculty is the perfection of higher dentistry education. The faculty optimizes the educational process aimed at activating the cognitive ability of students, developing a habit for educational & research and incorporating a creative approach for professional activity. The faculty helps students to obtain excellent knowledge in the dental field. It grows and develops, absorbing all the best, from the experience of the university’s work. The University also offers post graduate course and clinical training in Dentistry.
Pediatrics
It is a six year course awarding the “Doctor of Pediatrics” degree. It is offered in Russian and Ukrainian language only. The course is similar to “General Medicine” but clinical focus is on the infant, surgery of the infant etc. Those who complete this course acquire the diploma of a Pediatrician. The student receives general biological and medical education in first two years. Pediatric education starts from the third to sixth year.Students master knowledge in children’s anatomy, physiology, pathology and hygiene, diseases, treatment of inborn defects, hip and hip-joint development and others. Post graduate courses and clinical training is offered.
Pharmacy
It is a five year course awarding the “Bachelor of Pharmacy” degree. Course is offered in Russian and Ukrainian language only. Students are taught fundamentals of medicine and biology and some clinical aspects too. On completion the diploma of pharmacist is awarded. They are trained to work in companies and / or for research. A methodical is created for training highly qualified specialists. The prime departments are: pharmacology, biology, genetics, botany, in-organic chemistry, analytical, physical and organic chemistry. Post graduate and master courses are also offered in Pharmacy.
Nursing
It is a three year or a four year course awarding the “Bachelor of Nursing” degree. Students first study fundamental medical and biological disciplines, then clinical subjects and nursing in different situations. Practical and theoretical training is given in class and in hospitals.
What is a Noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers’ passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 B.C.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
Noun Gender
Many commoouns, like “engineer” or “teacher,” can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender — for example, a man was called an “author” while a woman was called an “authoress” — but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.
David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn’t decide whether he was advertising for a “waiter” or a “waitress”
Noun Plurals
Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding “-s” or “-es”, as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:
When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an unexpected echo.
I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.
He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.
Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.
There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding “s”. Some words ending in “f” form the plural by deleting “f” and adding “ves,” and words ending in “y” form the plural by deleting the “y” and adding “ies,” as in the following pairs of sentences:
The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.
Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.
The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.
The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, “Are you a mouse or a man?”
The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.
Other nouns form the plural irregularly. If English is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter “s.”
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in “s” by adding an apostrophe and “s,” as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra’s.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister’s.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant’s screams.
The miner’s face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in “s” by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and “s,” as in the following examples:
The bus’s seats are very uncomfortable.
The bus’ seats are very uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus’s eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus’ eggs.
Felicia Hemans’s poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron’s.
Felicia Hemans’ poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron’s.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in “s” by adding an apostrophe and a “s,” as in the following examples:
The children’s mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep’s pen was mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury’s verdict is not always final.
The men’s hockey team will be play as soon as the women’s team is finished.
The hunter followed the moose’s trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in “s” by adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs’ barking, the ducks’ quacking, and the babies’ squalling.
The janitors’ room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels’ nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries’ bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates’ many late night debates.
Using Possessive Nouns
When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:
The miner’s face was covered in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun “miner’s” is used to modify the noun “face” and together with the article “the,” they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence’s subject.
The concert was interrupted by the dogs’ barking, the ducks’ quacking, and the babies’ squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun “dogs”‘ modifies “barking”, “ducks”‘ modifies “quacking,” and “babies”‘ modifies “squalling.”
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus’s eggs.
In this example the possessive noun “platypus’s” modifies the noun “eggs” and the noun phrase “the platypus’s eggs” is the direct object of the verb “crushed.”
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels’ nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun “squirrels”‘ is used to modify the noun “nest” and the noun phrase “the squirrels’ nest” is the object of the infinitive phrase “to locate.”
Types Of Nouns
There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as “Canada” or “Louise,” and do not capitalise others, such as “badger” or “tree” (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the commooun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.
If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.
Proper Nouns
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a commooun
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.
Common Nouns
A commooun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense — usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A commooun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the commoouns are highlighted:
According to the sign, the nearest town is
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
I don’t understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of commoouns, as in the following examples:
The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.
Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child’s first introduction to the history of the Holocaust.
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.
As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet’s rendition of a minuet.
The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Since he inherited his aunt’s library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word “oxygen” cannot normally be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Since “oxygen” is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb “is” rather than the plural verb “are.”
We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.
You cannot make the noun “furniture” plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since “furniture” is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, “is heaped.”
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun “gravel” plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since “gravel” is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form “is.”
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a nouaming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:
The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun “geese” takes the singular verb “spends.”
The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun “jury” is the subject of the singular compound verb “is dining.”
The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun “committee” takes a singular verb, “meets.”
The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
In this sentence the word “class” is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb “was startled”.
NOUN
What a noun is and what it does
A noun tells us what someone or something is called For example, a
noun can be the name of a person (John), a job title (doctor) the
name of a thing (radio), the name of a place (London), the name of a
quality (courage), or the name of an action (laughter/laughing) Nouns
are the names we give to people, things, places, etc in order to
identify them Many nouns are used after a determiner, e g a the this
[> 3.1] and often combine with other words to form a noun phrase
e g the man the maext door that tall building the old broom in
the cupboard Nouns and noun phrases answer the questions Who?
or What? and may be
– the subject of a verb [> 1.4]
Our agent in Cairo sent a telex this morning
– the direct object of a verb [> 1.9]
Frank sent an urgent telex from
– the indirect object of a verb [> 1.9]
Frank sent his boss a telex
– the object of a preposition [> 8.1]
/ read about it in the paper
– the complement of be or a related verb like seem [> 1.9]
Jane Forbes is our guest
– used ‘in apposition’ [> 1.39, 3.30]
Laura Myers, a BBC reporter asked for an interview
– used when we speak directly to somebody
Caroline shut that window will you please?
2.2 Noun endings
Some words function only as nouns (desk), others function as nouns
or verbs (work), while others function as nouns or adjectives (cold)
we cannot identify such words as nouns from their endings or
suffixes However, many nouns which are related to verbs or
adjectives have characteristic endings For example, er, added to a
verb like play, gives us the noun player, ity, added to the adjective
active, gives us the noun activity There are no easy rules to tell us
which endings to use to make nouns A dictionary can provide this
kind of information, but [> App 2]
2.3 Noun/verb contrasts
Some words can be either nouns or verbs We can often tell the
difference from the way they are stressed and pronounced
Compound nouns
2.3.1 Nouns and verbs distinguished by stress
eg discount entrance export import object [> App 3.1]
When the stress is on the first syllable, the word is a noun, when the
stress is on the second syllable, it is a verb
The meanings are generally related
noun We have finished Book 1 We have made good ‘progress
verb We are now ready to pro’gress to Book 2
but can be different
noun My son s ‘conduct at school hasn t been very good
verb Mahler used to con’duct the
|
2.3.2 Nouns distinguished by pronunciation: |
/s/,/z/,/f/,/v/,/ɵ/,/ð/
When the ending is pronounced with no voice , it is a noun, when it is
pronounced ‘hard’, it is a verb Sometimes this difference is reflected
in the spelling
/s/ and /z/ abuse/abuse advice/advise house/house use/use
/f/ and /v/ belief/believe proof/prove shelf/shelve
/ɵ/,/ð/ cloth/clothe teeth/teethe
Exceptions /s/ only in practice (noun)/practise (verb) and licence
(noun)/license (verb)
And note words like associate graduate and estimate where the
pronunciation of the noun is different from that of the verb
I m not a university graduate /grǽdʊət/ yet
I hope to graduate / grǽdjʊəit/ next summer
2.3.3 Nouns and verbs with the same spelling and pronunciation
e g answer change dream end hope offer trouble [> App 3.2]
Compound nouns
2.4 Compound nouns
Many nouns in English are formed from two parts (classroom!) or, less
commonly, three or more (son-in-law stick in the mud) Sometimes
compounds are spelt with a hyphen, sometimes not [> 2.11] They are
usually pronounced with the stress on the first syllable, but there are
exceptions noted below
2.5 Single-word compound nouns
There are many words which we no longer think of as compounds at
all, even though they are clearly made up of two words
e g a ‘cupboard a ‘raincoat a ‘saucepan the ‘seaside a ‘typewriter
2.6 Nouns formed with adjective + noun
e g a ‘greenhouse a ‘heavyweight ‘longhand a ‘redhead
Note the difference in meaning when these words are rearranged as
adjective + noun
a ‘heavyweight(= a boxer)
a ‘heavy ‘weight(= a weight that is heavy)
2 Nouns
2.7 Nouns formed with gerund + noun
e g ‘drinking water a ‘frying pan a ‘walking stick [> 2.11n3]
The meaning is ‘something which is used for doing something’
e g a frying pan (hyphen optional, = a pan that is used for frying)
Compare other ing + noun combinations which are not compound
nouns and where the -ing form is a participle used as an adjective
These combinations are not ‘fixed’, are not spelt with a hyphen, and
are stressed in both parts ‘boiling ‘water (= water that is boiling) [>
6.2, 6.3.1 6.14 16.38 16.39.3]
2.8 Nouns formed with noun + gerund
e g ‘horse-riding ‘sight seeing ‘sunbathing [> 2 11.n.3]
Here the meaning is ‘the action of ‘ horse-riding (= the action of
riding a horse)
2.9 Nouns formed with adverb particles
These compound nouns are combinations of verbs and adverb
particles eg ‘breakdown ‘income ‘make up [> Apps 31.35]
2.10 Nouns formed with noun + noun
When two nouns are used together to form a compound noun, the first
noun (noun modifier) usually functions like an adjective and is nearly
always in the singular This is the largest category of compound
nouns and it can be considered under several headings
2.10.1 Compound nouns in place of phrases with ‘of
e g a ‘car key a ‘chair leg a ‘door knob a ‘typewriter key
When we want to say that one (non-living) thing is part of another, we
can use of the key of the car [> 2.47] However, this can sound rather
emphatic so we often use a compound noun instead (e g a car key)
for things which are closely associated
2.10.2 Compound nouns which refer to place
The first word refers to a place and the second word to something
that is in that place Both words are closely associated and are
stressed but not hyphenated
eg the ‘bank ‘safe a ‘personal com’puter a ‘kitchen ‘sink
Also note place names ‘
2.10.3 Compound nouns which refer to streets and roads
Where the word street occurs, the stress is on the first syllable e g
‘Baker Street ‘Oxford Street Where the word road occurs, both
parts are stressed e g ‘Canterbury ‘Road the ‘Oxford ‘road
Compound place names are not hyphenated
2.10.4 Compound nouns which tell us about purpose [compare > 2.7]
e g a ‘bookcase a ‘can opener a ‘meeting point a ‘sheep dog
The second word suggests a use relating to the first (hypheormally
optional) A can opener is ‘a device for opening cans’
Compound nouns
2.10-5 Compound nouns which tell us about materials and substances
e g a ‘cotton ‘blouse a ‘gold ‘watch a ‘plastic ‘raincoat
The first word refers to a substance or material, the second to
something made of that substance or material [> 6.13]
2.10.6 Compound nouns which ‘classify types’
e g a ‘horror film a ‘headlamp a ‘seat belt
The first word answers the question What kind of ? These
combinations can be extended to people and the things they do, as
in a ‘bookseller a ‘factory worker a ‘taxi driver
Note the difference between an ‘English teacher (i e one who
teaches English) and an English ‘teacher (i e one who is English)
Other compounds refer to pieces of apparatus and what operates
them, as in a ‘gas boiler a ‘pressure cooker a ‘vacuum cleaner
Note the many combinations with shop a ‘flower shop a ‘shoe shop,
etc For combinations like ‘butchers (shop) [> 2.51.3,20.4]
2.10.7 Compound nouns which refer to ‘containers’
e g a ‘biscuit tin a ‘coffee cup a ‘teapot a ‘sugar bowl
The second item is designed to contain the first [> 2.18.2]
2.10.8 Compound nouns which relate to time
A number of combinations relate specifically to the time at which an
activity takes place or to its duration e g ‘afternoon ‘tea ‘morning
‘coffee the ‘Sunday ‘lunch a ‘two-hour ‘walk Also note other
nouns relating to time an ‘evening ‘dress a ‘night ‘nurse
2.10.9 Compound nouns formed with ‘self, ‘man’, ‘woman’ and ‘person’
self- (stress on some part of the second word)
eg self-‘consciousness self-con’trol self den’lal self res’pect
man/woman (stress on first word)
e g an ‘airman a ‘fireman a ‘gentleman/woman a ‘man-eater a
‘man-hour a ‘horseman/woman a ‘policeman’woman a ‘workman
Some people replace man by person in a few nouns when the
reference is to either sex a chairperson a salesperson [> 2.40.4]
2.10.10 Proper nouns with two or more parts
eg a ‘Ford ‘car an ‘IBM com’puter ‘Longman ‘Books ‘Shell
‘Oil a ‘North Sea ‘oil rig a/the ‘Tate ‘Gallery Exhibition
2.11 A note on hyphens
There are no precise rules, so the following are brief guidelines
1 When two short nouns are joined together, they form one word
without a hyphen (a teacup) We do not join two short nouns if this
leads to problems of recognition bus stop (Not “busstop*)
2 Hyphens are often used for verb + particle combinations (make up)
[> App 31.35] and self combinations (self-respect)
3 When a compound is accepted as a single word (e g it has an
entry in a dictionary) the tendency is to write it as one word
(sunbathing) In other cases, the use of the hyphen is at the
discretion of the writer (writing paper or writing paper), but the
tendency is to avoid hyphens where possible
2 Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
2.12 Types of nouns
proper
concrete a book
countable noun
abstract an idea
common
concrete clothing
uncountable
abstract courage
2.13 Proper nouns and commoouns
All nouns fall into one of two classes They may be either proper
nouns or commoouns
2.13.1 Proper nouns
A proper noun (sometimes called a ‘proper name’) is used for a
particular person, place, thing or idea which is, or is imagined to be
unique It is generally spelt with a capital letter Articles are not
normally used in front of proper nouns, but [> 3.9.4 3.31] Proper
nouns include for example
Personal names (with or without titles) Andrew Andrew Smith
Mr Andrew Smith President Kennedy
Forms of address Mum Dad Auntie Uncle Fred
Geographical names
Place
names
Months, days of the e g April Monday Easter Christmas
week festivals and Seasons are usually spelt with a small
seasons [> Apps 24 48] letter but sometimes with a capital
spring or Spring
For other names [> 3.22 3.27 3.31]
First names commonly used in other languages often have their
English equivalents (e g Charles for Carlos, Karl, etc ) Well-known
foreign place names are normally anglicized e g
2.13.2 Commoouns
Any noun that is not the name of a particular person, place, thing or
idea is a commooun We can use a/an the or the zero article in
front of commoouns [> Chapter 3]
2.14 How to identify countable and uncountable nouns
All commoouns fall into one of two sub-classes they may be either
countable nouns (sometimes known as unit or count nouns) or
uncountable nouns (sometimes known as mass or non-count
nouns) The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is
I Countable and uncountable nouns
fundamental in English, for only by distinguishing between the two can
we understand when to use singular or plural forms and when to use
the indefinite, definite and zero articles a/an the and 0 [> 3.2-3] or
the appropriate quantifier a few much many, etc [> 3.1,5.1]
Unfortunately, we cannot always rely on common sense (using the
idea of counting as a guide) to tell us when a noun is countable or
uncountable For example, the noun information is uncountable in
English, but its equivalent in another language may refer to an item or
items of information and will therefore be countable [> 2.17]
Experience is uncountable, but we can refer to an experience to mean
an event which contributes to experience
They want someone with experience for this job
I had a strange experience the other day
Many nouns which are normally uncountable can be used as
countables in certain contexts [> 2.16.3] This suggests that strict
classifications of nouns as countable or uncountable are in many
cases unreliable It would be better to think in terms of countable and
uncountable uses of nouns For detailed information about individual
nouns, consult a good dictionary
2.14.1 Countable nouns
If a noun is countable
– we can use a/an in front of it a book an envelope
– it has a plural and can be used in the question How many?
How many stamps’envelopes? – Four stamps/envelopes
– we can use numbers one stamp two stamps
2.14.2 Uncountable nouns
If a noun is uncountable
– we do not normally use a/an in front of it Sugar is expensive
– it does not normally have a plural and it can be used in the
question How much? How much meat/oil? – A lot of meat’A little oil
– we cannot normally use a number (one two) in front of it
2.15 Concrete and abstract nouns
Many countable nouns are concrete (having an individual physical
existence) for example
Persons, animals, plants a girl a horse a geranium
Objects a bottle a desk a typewriter
Groups an army a crowd a herd
Units of measurement a franc a kilo a litre a metre
Parts of a mass a bit a packet a piece a slice
Concrete uncountable nouns (sometimes having physical but not
‘individual’ existence) include words like
Materials, liquids, gases cotton milk air
‘Grains’ and ‘powder’ barley rice dust flour
Activities camping drinking eating sailing
Languages Arabic Italian Japanese Turkish
2 Nouns
A few countable nouns are abstract: e.g. a hope, an idea a nuisance
a remark a situation. A number of abstract nouns can be used only
as countables: e.g. a denial a proposal a scheme a statement
Many uncountable nouns are abstract: e.g. anger, equality, honesty
2.16 Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable
Some nouns may be countable or uncountable depending on their use.
2.16.1 Nouns we can think of as ‘single items’ or ‘substances’
e.g. a chicken/chicken an egg/egg. a ribbon/ribbon
When we use these as countables, we refer to them as single items;
when we use them as uncountables, we refer to them as substances.
countable (a single item) uncountable (substance/material)
He ate a whole chicken! Would you like some chicken?
I had a boiled egg for breakfast There’s egg on your face
I tied it up with a ribbon I bought a metre of ribbon
2.16.2 Nouns which refer to objects or material
e.g. a glass/glass an ice/ice, an iron/iron, a paper/paper
When we use such nouns as countables, we refer to e.g. a thing
which is made of the material or which we think of as being made of
the material; when we use them as uncountables, we refer only to the
material.
countable (‘thing’) uncountable (‘material’)
/ broke a glass this morning Glass is made from sand.
Would you like an ice? Ice floats
I’ve got a new iron Steel is an alloy of iron
What do the papers say? Paper is made from wood
2.16.3 Normally uncountable nouns used as countables
Many nouns which are normally uncountable can be used as
countables if we refer to particular varieties. When this occurs, the
noun is often preceded by an adjective (a nice wine) or there is some
kind of specification (a wine of high quality);
This region produces an excellent wine (i.e. a kind of wine which. .)
Kalamata produces some of the best olive oil in the world, it’s an oil
of very high quality (i.e. a kind of oil which…)
The North Sea produces a light oil which is highly prized in the oi>
industry
Normally uncountable nouns used exceptionally as countables can
also occur in the plural:
This region produces some awful wines as well as good ones
I go out in all weathers
Note also many words for drinks, which are uncountable when we
think of them as substances:
Beer/coffee/tea is expensive these days
Countable and uncountable nouns
However, we can sometimes use a/an to mean e.g. a glass of, etc. [>
2.18] or numbers in front of these words, or we can make them plural,
for example when we are ordering in a restaurant:
A (or One) beer please Two teas and four coffees, please
2.16.4 Nouns which can refer to something specific or general
e.g. an education/education, a light/light, a noise/noise
As countables, these nouns refer to something specific (He has had
a good education I need a light by my bed). As uncountables, the
reference is general (Standards of education are falling Light travels
faster than sound).
countable (‘specific’) uncountable (‘general’)
A good education is expensive Education should be free
Try not to make a noise Noise is a kind of pollution
Some countable nouns like this can be plural (a light/lights, a
noise/noises). Other nouns (education knowledge) cannot be plural;
as countables they often have some kind of qualification (a classical
education, a good knowledge of English).
2.16.5 Nouns ending in ‘-ing’
e.g. a drawing/drawing, a painting/painting, a reading/reading
-ing forms are generally uncountable [> 16.39.1], but a few can refer
to a specific thing or event.
countable (‘specific’) uncountable (‘general’)
Are these drawings by Goya? I’m no good at drawing
He has a painting by Hockney Painting is my hobby
She gave a reading of her poems. Reading is taught early
A few -ing forms (a thrashing, a wedding) are only countable.
2.16.6 Selected uncountable nouns and their countable equivalents
Some uncountables cannot be used as countables to refer to a single
item or example. A quite different word must be used:
uncountable equivalent countable
bread a loaf
clothing a garment
laughter a laugh
luggage a case, a bag
poetry a poem
money a coin, a note
work [but > 2.31, 2.33] a job
Nouns for animals are countable; nouns for meat are uncountable:
a cow/beef a deer/venison a pig/pork, a sheep/mutton
2.17 Nouns not normally countable in English
A number of nouns which are countable in other languages (and are
therefore used in the singular and plural in those languages) are
2 Nouns
usually uncountable in English (and therefore not normally used with
a/an or in the plural). A few common examples are: baggage,
furniture, information, macaroni, machinery, spaghetti [> App 4]:
We bought (some) new furniture for our living room recently
I’d like some information please.
2.18 Partitives: nouns which refer to part of a whole
We can refer to a single item (a loaf of bread), a part of a whole (a
slice of bread) or a collection of items (a packet of biscuits) by means
of partitives. Partitives are useful when we want to refer to specific
pieces of an uncountable substance, or to a limited number of
countable items. They can be singular (a piece of paper; a box of
matches) or plural (two pieces of paper; two boxes of matches) and
are followed by of when used before a noun. The most useful are:
2.18.1 General partitives
Words such as piece and (less formal) bit can be used with a large
number of uncountables (concrete or abstract):
singular: a piece of/bit of chalk/cloth/information/meat/plastic
plural: pieces of/bits of chalk/cloth/information/meat/plastic.
2.18.2 Specific partitives
Here is a brief summary, but [> App 5] for more examples:
Single items or amounts:
a ball of string, a bar of chocolate, a cube of ice,
a lump of sugar; a sheet of paper, a slice of bread
A few of these can be re-expressed as compounds:
e.g. a sugar lump, ice cubes
‘Containers’ used as partitives:
a bag of flour; a box of matches, a cup of coffee; a jar of jam,
a packet of biscuits, a pot of tea; a tube of toothpaste
Most of these can be re-expressed as compounds: e.g. a jam-jar a
matchbox, a teapot, to describe the container itself. Thus a teapot
describes the container (which may be full or empty), while a pot ot
tea describes a pot with tea in it [> 2.10.7].
Small quantities: a drop of water, a pinch of salt
Measures: a kilo of sugar, a metre of cloth
‘a game of: a game of football
Abstract concepts: a period of calm, a spell of work
Types and species: a make of car, a sort of cake
‘a pair of: a pair of gloves, a pair of jeans [> App 5.8]
2.19 Collective nouns followed by ‘of
These describe groups (or ‘collections’) of people or things:
People: an army of soldiers a board of directors
Animals, birds, insects: a flock of birds/sheep, a swarm of bees
Plants and fruit: a bunch of flowers; a crop of apples
Things: a set of cutlery, a suit of clothes
For more examples [> App 6]. For other collective nouns [> 2.28].
Number (singular and plural)
Number (singular and plural)
2,20 Singular and plural forms of nouns
regular spelling singular plural
-s after most nouns: cat cats
tub tubs
-es after nouns ending in -o potato potatoes [> 2.25]
-s: class classes
-x: box boxes
-ch: watch watches
-sh: bush bushes
consonant + -y becomes -ies: country countries
Note that vowel + ,-y adds -s:-ay: day days
-ey. key keys
-oy. boy boys
-uy. guy guys
Proper nouns ending in -y add -s in the plural:
Fry the Frys [> 2.36]
Kennedy the Kennedys
irregular spelling
Some endings in -f/-fe take -ves. wife wives [> 2.23]
Internal vowel change man men [> 2. 26]
Nouns with plurals in -en: ox oxen [> 2.26]
No change: sheep sheep [> 2.27]
Foreign plurals, e.g analysis analyses [> 2.34]
|
/ s / after |
2.21 Pronunciation of nouns with regular plurals
The rules for pronunciation are the same as those for the 3rd person
simple present of regular verbs [> 9.7].
/f/ chiefs, coughs, proofs [> 2.23]
/k/ cakes, forks, knocks
/p/ drops, taps, tapes
/t/ pets, pockets, skirts
/Ɵ / depths, months, myths [> 2.22]
/b/ tubs, tubes, verbs
/d/ friends, hands, roads
/g/ bags dogs, legs
/l/ bells, tables, walls
/m/ arms, dreams, names
/n/ lessons, pens, spoons
/ ɧ /songs, stings, tongues
vowel + /r/: chairs, doors, workers
vowel sounds: eyes, ways, windows
Note that e is not pronounced in the categories above when the plural
ends in -es: e.g. cakes, clothes stones, tapes, tubes
Nouns ending in the following take an extra syllable pronounced /iz/:
|
/z/ mazes, noises, noses /dʒ/ bridges, oranges, pages |
/ ʃ/ bushes, crashes, dishes
/ ʧ / matches, patches, speeches
/ks/ axes, boxes, taxes
2 Nouns
2.22 Nouns with regular spelling/irregular pronunciation
The ending of the following nouns is pronounced Izl in the plural
baths mouths oaths paths truths wreaths youths
The plural of house (houses) is pronounced /hauziz/
2.23 Nouns with irregular pronunciation and spelling
The following thirteeouns with spellings ending in -for -fe
(pronounced /fI) in the singular, are all spelt with-ves in the plural
(pronounced /vz/) calf/calves elf/elves half/halves knife/knives
leaf/leaves life/lives loaf/loaves self/selves sheaf/sheaves
shelf/shelves thief’thieves wife/wives wolf/wolves
The following nouns have regular and irregular plural pronunciation
and spellings
dwarf/dwarfs ordwarves hoof/hoofs orhooves scarf/scarfs or
scarves wharf/wharfs or wharves
But note the following nouns which have regular spelling, but both
regular and irregular pronunciation in the plural (/fs/ or /vs/)
handkerchief/handkerchiefs roof/roofs
2.24 Nouns with plurals ending in -‘s
There are a few instances where s is commonly used to form a plural
– after letters Watch your p s and q s
After the following, the plural is normally formed with the addition of
but s also occurs
– years the 1890s or 1890s the 1980s or 1980s
– abbreviations VIPs or VIP s (Very Important Persons) MPs or
MPs (Members of Parliament) Note the finals is
a small letter
2.25 The plural of nouns ending in -o
Many commonly used nouns techo hero potato tomato ) ending in -o
are spelt oes in the plural The following are spelt with-oes or-os
buffalo cargo commando grotto halo mosquito tornado volcano
All these endings are pronounced/ əʊz I
The following have plurals spelt with os
– nouns ending in vowel + -o or double o bamboos folios
kangaroos oratorios radios studios videos zoos
– abbreviations kilos (for kilograms),photos (for photographs)
– Italian musical terms e g concertos pianos solos sopranos
~ proper nouns Eskimos Filipinos
2.26 Irregular spelling: internal vowel change
The following nouns form their plurals by changing the internal
vowel(s) (this is a survival from old English) foot’feet goose/geese
louse lice man/men mouse/mice tooth/teeth woman/women
Compound nouns formed with man or woman as a suffix form their
Number (singular and plural)
plurals with -men or -women policeman/policemen policewoman
policewomen Both -man and men in such compounds (but not
-woman/women) are often pronounced /man/
Other survivals from the past are a few nouns which form their plurals
with -en brother brethren child/children ox/oxen Brethren is used in
religious contexts, otherwise brothers is the normal plural of brother
Penny can have a regular plural pennies when we are referring to
separate coins (ten pennies) or a collective plural, pence, when we
are referring to a total amount (tenpence)
2.27 Nouns with the same singular and plural forms
Some nouns do not change in form These include
– names of certain animals, birds and fish deer grouse mackerel
plaice salmon sheep trout
This sheep is from Australia These sheep are from Australia
– craft and aircraft/hovercraft/spacecraft
The craft was sunk All the craft were sunk
(But compare Arts and crafts are part of the curriculum )
– certaiouns describing nationalities e g a Chinese a Swiss a
Vietnamese [> App 49]
He is a Vietnamese The Vietnamese are noted for their cookery
Note that some names of fish, etc can form a regular plural
Herrings were (or Herring were) once very plentiful
Fish is the normal plural of fish (singular), but fishes can also be used,
especially to refer to species of fish
My goldfish has died (one) My goldfish have died (more than one)
You II see many kinds of fish(es) in the fish market
2.28 Collective noun + singular or plural verb
2.28.1 Collective nouns which have plural forms
Some collective nouns such as audience class club committee
company congregation council crew crowd family gang
government group jury mob staff team and union can be used with
singular or plural verbs They are singular and can combine with the
relative pronouns which/that and be replaced by it when we think of
them in an impersonal fashion, i e as a whole group
The present government, which hasn’t been in power long is
trying to control inflation It isn’t having much success
They are plural and can combine with who and be replaced by they
or them when we think of them in a more personal way, i e as the
individuals that make up the group
The government, who are looking for a quick victory are calling
for a general election soon They expect to be re-elected A lot of
people are giving them their support
These collective nouns can also have regular plural forms
Governments in all countries are trying to control inflation
For plural nouns in a collective sense (e g the workers) [> 3.19.4]
Some proper nouns (e g football teams) can be used as collectives
Arsenal is/are playing away on Saturday
2 Nouns
2.28.2 Collective nouns which do not have plural forms
The following collective nouns have no regular plural but can be
followed by a singular or plural verb: the aristocracy, the gentry the
proletariat, the majority, the minority, the public, the youth of today
Give the public what it wants/they want
Offspring has no plural form but can be followed by a singular verb to
refer to one or a plural verb to refer to more than one:
Her offspring is like her in every respect (one child)
Her offspring are like her in every respect (more than one child)
The youth of today (= all young people) should not be confused with
a/the youth (= a/the young man), which has a regular plural youths.
The youth of today is/are better off than we used to be
The witness said he saw a youth/five youths outside the shop
Youth (= a time of life) is used with singular verbs:
Youth is the time for action; age is the time for repose
2.29 Collective noun + plural verb
The following collective nouns must be followed by a plural verb; they
do not have plural forms: cattle, the clergy the military, people the
police, swine vermin
Some people are never satisfied
The police/the military have surrounded the building
People should not be confused with a/the people, meaning ‘nation’ or
‘tribe’, which is countable:
The British are a sea-faring people
The English-speaking peoples share a common language
For the + adjective + plural verb (e.g. the blind) [> 6.12.2].
2.30 Nouns with a plural form + singular verb
The following nouns, though plural in form, are always followed by a
verb in the singular:
– the noun news, as in: The news on TV is always depressing
– games, such as billiards, bowls, darts dominoes
Billiards is becoming more and more popular
– names of cities such as Athens Brussels Naples
Athens has grown rapidly in the past decade
2.31 Nouns with a plural form + singular or plural verb
The following nouns ending in -ics take a singular verb:
athletics gymnastics, linguistics mathematics and physics:
Mathematics is a compulsory subject at school
However, some words ending in -ics, such as acoustics, economics
ethics, phonetics and statistics take a singular or plural verb. When
the reference is to an academic subject (e.g. acoustics = the
scientific study of sound) then the verb must be singular:
Acoustics is a branch of physics
When the reference is specific, (e.g. acoustics = sound quality) then
the verb must be plural:
The acoustics in the Festival Hall are extremely good.
Number (singular and plural)
Plural-form nouns describing illnesses [> 3.15] have a singular verb:
German measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women
However, a plural verb is sometimes possible:
Mumps are (or is) fairly rare in adults
Some plural-form nouns can be regarded as a single unit (+ verb in
the singular) or collective (+ verb in the plural). Examples are:
barracks, bellows, crossroads, gallows gasworks headquarters
kennels, series, species and works (= factory).
– single unit: This species of rose is very rare
– more than one: There are thousands of species of butterflies
The word means (= a way to an end) is followed by a singular or
plural verb, depending on the word used before it:
All means have been used to get him to change his mind
One means is still to be tried
2.32 Nouns with a plural form + plural verb
Nouns with a plural form only (+ plural verb) are:
– nouns which can combine with a pair of [> App 5.8]:
My trousers are torn
Used with a pair of, these words must have a singular verb:
A pair of glasses costs quite a lot these days
We cannot normally use numbers in front of these words, but we
can say two, etc. pairs of:
Two pairs of your trousers are still at the cleaner s
Some of these nouns can have a singular form when used in
compounds: e.g. pyjama top, trouser leg
Where did I put my pyjama top?
– a few words which occur only in the plural and are followed by a
plural verb. Some of these are: Antipodes belongings, brains (=
intellect), clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, greens (=
green vegetables), lodgings, looks (= good looks), means (=
money or material possessions), oats odds (in betting), outskirts
particulars quarters (= accommodation), remains, riches, stairs
suds surroundings thanks, tropics
All my belongings are in this bag
2.33 Nouns with different singular and plural meanings
Some nouns have different meanings in the singular and plural.
Typical examples: air/airs, ash/ashes content/contents
custom/customs, damage/damages drawer/drawers fund/funds
glass/glasses look/looks, manner/manners, minute/minutes,
pain/pains scale/scales saving/savings spectacle/spectacles
step/steps, work/works Sometimes the meanings are far apart
(air/airs), sometimes they are quite close (fund’funds).
One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind
You can only reach that cupboard with a pair of steps
Of course, the countable nouns in the above list have their own
plurals: dirty looks five minutes sharp pains, two steps, etc.
2 Nouns
2.34 Nouns with foreign plurals
There is a natural tendency to make all nouns conform to the regular
rules for the pronunciation and spelling of English plurals. The more
commonly a noun is used, the more likely this is to happen. Some
native English speakers avoid foreign plurals in everyday speech and
use them only in scientific and technical contexts.
2.34.1 Nouns of foreign origin with anglicized plurals, e.g.
album,albums, apparatus/apparatuses, genius/geniuses
2.34.2 Nouns with both foreign and anglicized plurals, e.g.
-us: cactus/cacti/cactuses, -a: antenna/antennae/antennas
-ex/ix: index/indices/indexes appendix/appendices/appendixes
-um: medium/media/mediums, -on: automaton/automata/automa’
-eu/-eau: adieu/adieux/adieus, plateau/plateaus/plateaux (Izl).
Alternative plurals can have different meanings: e.g. antennae is a
biological term; antennas can describe e.g. radio aerials.
2.34.3 Nouns with foreign plurals only, e.g.
-us: alumnus/alumni; -a: alumna/alumnae, -um: stratum/strata,
-is: analysis/analyses, -on: criterion/criteria
Media + singular or plural verb is used to refer to the press, TV, etc ,
data is used with a singular or plural verb; agenda is a foreign plural
used in the singular in English with a regular plural, agendas.
2.35 Compound nouns and their plurals
2.35.1 Plural mainly in the last element
The tendency is to:
– put a plural ending (-s -es, etc.) on the second noun ioun +
noun combinations: boyfriends, flower shops, matchboxes, etc.
and in gerund + noun combinations: frying pans
– put a plural ending on the noun: onlookers lookers-on, passers
– put a plural ending on the last word wheo noun is present:
breakdowns forget-me-nots, grown-ups, lay-offs, etc.
2.35.2 Plural in the first element in some compounds
attorney general/attorneys general, court-martial/courts-martiai
man-of-war>men~of-war, mother-in-law/mothers-in-law (but in laws in
general references: Our in-laws are staying with us)] notary
public/notaries public, spoonful/spoonsful (or spoonfuls).
2.35.3 Plural in the first and last element
When the first element is man or woman, then both elements change
man student’men students woman student/women students, but
note compounds with lady lady friend lady friends.
Other compounds with man and woman form their plurals only in the
second word: man-eaters, manholes, woman-haters, etc. [> 2.10.9]
2.36 The plural of proper nouns
Plural surnames occur when we refer to families:
+ -s; The Atkinsons/The Frys are coming to dinner
+ -es; They’re forever trying to keep up with the Joneses
Gender
Other examples with proper nouns are:
There are three Janes and two Harrys in our family
We’ve had two very cold Januarys in a row [not -ies > 2.20]
We do not add -(e)s to the spelling where this would suggest a
false pronunciation: three King Louis the Dumas father and son
2.37 Numbers and their plurals [> app 47]
2.37.1 Dozen(s), hundred(s), etc.
The word dozen and numbers do not add -s when they are used in
front of plural nouns: two dozen eggs three hundred men ten
thousand pounds, etc. They add -s before of (i.e. when the number is
not specified):
Hundreds of people are going to the demonstration
Thousands of pounds have been spent on the new hospital
I said it was a secret but she s told dozens of people
237-2 ‘A whole amount’
When the reference is to ‘a whole amount’ a plural subject is followed
by a singular verb, with reference to:
Duration: Three weeks is a long time to wait for an answer
Money: Two hundred pounds is a lot to spend on a dress
Distance: Forty miles is a long way to walk in a day
2.38 Two nouns joined by ‘and’
Nouns that commonly go together such as bacon and eggs, bread
and butter, cheese and wine fish and chips, lemon and oil, tripe and
onions, sausage(s) and mash are used with verbs in the singular
when we think of them as a single unit. Noun combinations of this kind
have a fixed order of words:
Fish and chips is a popular meal in Britain
If we think of the items as ‘separate’, we use a plural verb:
Fish and chips make a good meal
Gender
2.39 General information about gender
people: man. actor. he
woman, actress- she
guest, student, teacher- he or she
animals: bull, cow it
things: chair, table. it
In many European languages the names of things, such as book
chair, radio, table have gender: that is they are classified
grammatically as masculine, feminine or neuter, although very often
gender doesn’t relate to sex. Grammatical gender barely concerns
nouns in English. It mainly concerns personal pronouns, where a
distinction is drawn between e.g.he she and It; possessive
2 Nouns
adjectives, his, her and its[> 4.1]; and relative pronouns, where a
distinction is drawn between who and which [> 1.27]. The determiners
[> 3.1] we use do not vary according to gender in front of nouns. We
can refer to a man a woman a box, the man, the woman, the box
many men, many women, many boxes
2.40 Identifying masculine and feminine through nouns
A few nouns are automatically replaced by masculine or feminine
pronouns, or by it. Some of these are as follows:
2.40.1 Contrasting nouns describing people (replaceable by e.g. ‘he/she’)
bachelor/spinster, boy/girl, brother/sister, father/mother
gentleman/lady, grandfather ‘grandmother, grandson/granddaughter
husband’wife, king/queen, man/woman monk/nun, Mr/Mrs,
nephew/niece sir/madam, son/daughter, uncle/aunt
2.40.2 Contrasting nouns describing animals (normally replaceable by ‘it’)
bull/cow, cock (or rooster)/hen, dog/bitch gander/goose pig’sow
ram/ewe stallion’mare
2.40.3 ‘-ess’ endings and other forms indicating sex/gender
A common way of indicating sex or gender is to change the ending of
the masculine noun with the suffix -ess-
actor/actress god/goddess heir/heiress host/hostess,
prince/princess steward/stewardess, waiter/waitress.
This distinction is becoming rarer so that words like author instructor
and manager are now commonly used for both sexes. Some words,
such as poetess, are falling into disuse because they are considered
disparaging by both sexes. In a few cases, -ess endings are used for
female animals, e.g. leopard/leopardess, lion/lioness, tiger/tigress Or
he-‘she- (stressed) is used as a prefix in e.g. he-goat/she-goat, or
wolf/she-wolf
Similar references can be made with other endings, etc. as well:
bndegroom/bride hero/heroine, lad/lass, landlord/landlady
male’female, masseur/masseuse usher/usherette widower/widow
2.40.4 Identifying masculine and feminine by ‘man’, ‘woman’, etc.
Certaiouns ending in -man refer to males: e.g. dustman,
policeman postman, salesman Others, ending in -woman, refer to
women: e.g. policewoman, postwoman, saleswoman A few, such as
chairman: can be used for men and women [> 2.10.9].
We tend to assume that words like model and nurse refer to women
and words like judge and wrestler refer to men. If this is not the case
and we wish to make a point of it, we can refer to a male model or a
male nurse, or to a woman judge or a woman wrestler
2.41 Identifying masculine or feminine through pronouns
With many nouns we don’t know whether the person referred to is
male or female until we hear the pronoun:
My accountant says he is moving his office
My doctor says she is pleased with my progress
The genitive
This applies to nouns such as: adult, artist comrade, cook cousin
darling, dear doctor enemy foreigner, friend guest journalist,
lawyer librarian musiciaeighbour orphan, owner, parent,
passenger, person pupil, relation relative, scientist, singer, speaker
spouse stranger student teacher tourist traveller visitor writer
Sometimes we can emphasize this choice by using both pronouns:
If a student wants more information he or she should apply in writing
However, this is becoming less acceptable. The tendency is to avoid
this kind of construction by using plurals [compare > 4.40]:
Students who want more information should apply in writing
The genitive
2.42 Form of the genitive
Add ‘s to singular personal nouns: child + s child’s
Add ‘s to singular personal nouns ending in -s. actress + s actress’s
Add ‘s to the plural of irregular personal nouns: children + s children’s
Add ‘to the plural of personal nouns ending in-s: girls + ‘ girls’
Add ‘s to some names ending in -s: James + ‘s James’s
2.43 The survival of the genitive in modern English
The only ‘case-form’ for nouns that exists in English is the genitive
(e.g. man’s), sometimes called the possessive case or the
possessive form. The -es genitive ending of some classes of nouns
in old English has survived in the modern language as ‘s (apostrophe
s) for some nouns in the singular and s'(s apostrophe) for some
nouns in the plural, but with limited uses.
2.44 When we add s and s’
We normally use ‘s and s’only for people and some living creatures
[> 2.48]. The possessive appears before the noun it refers to.
However, it can be used without a noun as well [> 2.51]:
/’// go in Frank’s car and you can go in Alan’s
The simplest rule to remember is: ‘add s to any personal noun unless
it is in the form of a plural ending in -s – in which case, just add an
apostrophe (‘). In practice, this means:
2.44.1 Singular and plural commoouns and names not ending in -s
– add s to singular nouns and to names not ending in -s:
a child’s dream, the dog’s kennel, Frank’s new job
If two names are joined by and, add ‘s to the second:
John and Mary’s bank balance Scott and Amundsen’s race
– add ‘s to singular nouns ending in -s:
an actress’s career, a waitress’s job
– add ‘s to irregular plural nouns:
children’s games the men’s club, sheep’s wool
– add an apostrophe (‘) after the s of regular plurals:
boys’ school, girls’ school Cheltenham Ladies’ College
2 Nouns
2.44.2 ‘s with compound nouns
With compound nouns the s comes after the last word:
My sister-in-law’s father is a pilot
The rule also applies to titles, as in: Henry the Eighth s marriages
the Secretary of State’s visit
Two genitives are also possible, as in:
My brother’s neighbour’s sister is a nurse
2.44.3 The use of the apostrophe after names ending in -s
We add ‘s to names ending in -s: Charles s address Doris s party
However, we can sometimes use’ or s: St James’ (or St James’s)
Park, Mr Jones (or Jones’s)car St Thomas’ (or St Thomas’s)
Hospital. No matter how we write the genitive in such cases, we
normally pronounce it as lizl. With some (especially famous) names
ending in -s we normally add an apostrophe after the -s (pronounced
/s/ or /iz/:Keats’ works Yeats’ poetry
We can show possession in the plural forms of names ending in -s by
adding an apostrophe at the end: the Joneses houses, etc.
With ancient Greek names we add an apostrophe after the -s, but
there is no change in pronunciation, Archimedes’ being pronounced
the same as Archimedes- Archimedes’ Principle
Initials can be followed by s when the reference is singular: an MPs
salary (= a Member of Parliament’s salary), ors’ when the reference
is plural: MPs salaries [> 2.24].
2.45 The pronunciation of s and s’
The pronunciation of s ands depends on the sound that precedes
them and follows the same rules as for plural nouns [> 2 21]: e.g.
/s/: Geoff’s hat Jacks/ob a months salary. Pats handbag
/z/. Ben s opinion Bill s place Bob s house the workers club
/iz/: an actress s career, the boss s office, Mrs Page s jam
2.46 The use of ‘s/s’ for purposes other than possession
While the genitive is generally associated with possession (usually
answering the question Whose ?), apostrophe s serves other
purposes as well, for example:
Regular use: Fathers chair ( = the one he usually sits on)
Relationship: Angela’s son (i.e. Angela has a son)
+ favourite: Fish and chips is John s favourite dish
Actions: Scott’s journey (i.e. the journey Scott made)
Purpose: A girls’ school (= a school for girls)
Characteristics: Johns’ stammer (i.e. John has a stammer)
Others: Building oil rigs is a man’s work (= suitable for)
Mozart is a composer’s composer (= appreciated by)
2.47 The use of’s and s’ compared with the use of ‘of
The ‘s construction is not possible in e.g. the key of the door or the
leg of the table because we do not normally use ‘s with non-living
things [> 2.10.1, 2.44]. When-s indicates ownership, every ‘s
The genitive
construction can have an of equivalent, but not every of-construction
can have an ‘s equivalent. So:
a man s voice can be expressed as the voice of a man
Keats’ poetry can be expressed as the poetry of Keats
And instead of the leg of the table, we can say the table-leg
2.48 The use of s and s’ with living things
We may use s ors’ after:
Personal names: Gus’s Restaurant Jones s car
Personal nouns: the doctor’s surgery man s future
Indefinite pronouns: anyone s guess, someone s responsibility
Collective nouns: the army s advance, the committee s decision
‘Higher animals’: the horse s stable, the horses stables
Some ‘lower animals’: an ants nest, a bees sting
When we refer to material which is produced or made by a living
animal, ‘s is generally required (stress on first word): a ‘bird s nest
‘cow’s milk ‘lamb’s wool, etc. Where the source of a material is an
animal that has been slaughtered, ‘s is not generally used (varied
stress): ‘beef ‘broth ‘cowhide, a ‘ham sandwich ‘sheepskin, etc.
2.49 The use of s and s’ with non-living things
We may use s/s’ or the of-construction with the following:
Geographical reference: America’s policy, Hong Kong’s future
Institutional reference: the European Economic Community s
exports
‘s ors’ are normally used with the following:
Place noun + superlative: New York’s tallest skyscraper
Churches and cathedrals: St Paul’s Church, St Stephen’s Cathedral
Time references: a day’s work, an hour’s delay, a month’s
Salary, today’s TV, a year’s absence, a
week or two’s time, two days’ journey
‘Money’s worth’: twenty dollars’ worth of gasoline
Fixed expressions: (keep someone) at arm’s length, (be) at
death’s door the earth s surface for
goodness sake, (to) one s heart s content
journey s end, the ship’s company
An s is sometimes used with reference to cars, planes and ships:
the car s exhaust the plane s engines the ship’s propeller
We can only learn from experience when to use s with non-living
things. When in doubt, it is best to use the of-construction.
2.50 The use of the of-construction’ to connect two nouns
We normally use the of-construction (not ‘s/s) when referring to:
Things (where a compound noun [> 2.10.1] is not available):
the book of the film, the shade of a tree
Parts of things: the bottom/top’side inside of the box
Abstract reference: the cost of living, the price of success
2 Nouns
The of-construction can be used to suggest be/behave/look like in
e.g. an angel of a child, that fool of a ticket-inspector We also use
this construction when the noun in the of-phrase is modified by an
additional phrase or clause:
Can t you look at the book of the boy behind you?
This was given to me by the colleague of a friend of mine
The of-construction can be used with plural nouns to avoid ambiguity.
The advice of the specialists may be preferable to the specialists
advice (more than one specialist), which could be confused with the
specialists advice (only one specialist).
A noun + of can sometimes be used in place of an infinitive:
It’s forbidden to remove books from this reference library
The removal of books from this reference library is forbidden
2.51 Omission of the noun after ‘s and s’
The ‘s/s’ construction can be used on its own when we refer to:
– a noun that is implied:
We need a ladder We can borrow our neighbour’s
– where someone lives:
I’m staying at my aunt’s I’m a guest at the Watsons’
– shops and businesses: e.g. the butcher’s, the hairdresser’s
Would you mind going to the chemist’s for me’
– medical practitioners: e.g. the dentists, the doctor’s
I’ve got an appointment at the dentist’s at 11.15
When we refer to well-known stores (e.g. Macy’s Harrod’s),
an apostrophe before the s is optional, but is usually omitted’.
You can t go to London without visiting Harrods/Harrod’s
When we refer to well-known restaurants by the name of the owner or
founder (e.g. Langan’s, Scott’s) s is included.
Churches and colleges (ofteamed after saints) are frequently
referred to in the same way, always with ‘s:
They were married in St Bartholomew’s
2.52 The double genitive
The ‘s construction can be used after the of-construction in: e.g. a
friend of my fathers, a play of Shakespeare s (= one of my father’s
friends; one of Shakespeare’s plays). This can happen because we
usually put only one determiner in front of a noun [> 3.4], so, for
example, we would not use this and my together in front of e.g. son.
Instead, we have to say this son of mine. And note other possessive
pronouns: a friend of yours, a cousin of hers, etc. We can use a this
that, these those some any, no, etc. in front of the noun, but not the:
Isn’ t Frank Byers a friend of yours?
He’s a friend of mine is more common than He is my friend, which
implies he is my special or only friend. He’s no friend of mine can
mean ‘I don’t know him’ or ‘He’s my enemy’.
The use of demonstratives [> 4.32-36] often suggests criticism:
That silly uncle of yours has told me the same joke five times
Literature:
1. Адамчик М.В. Великий англо-український словник. – Київ, 2007.
2. Англійська мова за професійним спрямуванням: Медицина: навч. посіб. для студ. вищ. навч. закл. IV рівня акредитації / І. А. Прокоп, В. Я. Рахлецька, Г. Я. Павлишин ; Терноп. держ. мед. ун-т ім. І. Я. Горбачевського. – Тернопіль: ТДМУ : Укрмедкнига, 2010. – 576 с.
3. Балла М.І., Подвезько М.Л. Англо-український словник. – Київ: Освіта, 2006. – Т. 1,2.
4. Hansen J. T. Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book. – Saunders Elsevier, 2010. – 121 p.
5. Henderson B., Dorsey J. L. Medical Terminology for Dummies. – Willey Publishing, 2009. – P. 189-211.
