Problem and Purpose Statements
Research Problems, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Studies begin as problems that researchers want to solve or as questions they want to answer. This chapter discusses the formulation and development of research problems. We begin by clarifying some relevant terms.
Basic Terminology
At the most general level, a researcher selects a topic or a phenomenon on which to focus. Examples of research topics are adolescent smoking, patient compliance, coping with disability, and pain management. Within each of these broad topics are many potential research problems. In this section, we illustrate various terms using the topic side effects of chemotherapy.
A research problem is an enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling condition. Both qualitative and quantitative researchers identify a research problem within a broad topic area of interest. The purpose of research is to “solve” the problem—or to contribute to its solution—by accumulating relevant information. A problem statement articulates the problem to be addressed and indicates the need for a study. Table 4-1 presents a problem statement related to the topic of side effects of chemotherapy.
Research questions are the specific queries researchers want to answer in addressing the research problem. Research questions guide the types of data to be collected in a study. Researchers who make specific predictions regarding answers to the research question pose hypotheses that are tested empirically.
Many reports include a statement of purpose (or purpose statement), which is the researcher’s summary of the overall goal of a study. A researcher might also identify several research aims or objectives—the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting the study. The objectives include obtaining answers to research questions or testing research hypotheses but may also encompass some broader aims (e.g., developing recommendations for changes to nursing practice based on the study results).
These terms are not always consistently defined in research methods textbooks, and differences between the terms are often subtle. Table 4-1 illustrates the interrelationships among terms as we define them.
Research forms a cycle. It starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem. The problem statement is therefore the axis which the whole research revolves around, beacause it explains in short the aim of the research.
1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.
There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing practical problems.
2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem identification). The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to which answers have not been found up to the present?
Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think about, wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, ie find answers to the question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are meaningless.
Keep the following in mind:
· Outline the general context of the problem area.
· Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
· What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?
· Why are these issues identified important?
· What needs to be solved?
· Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered questions or controversies, and/or to identify the the most significant issues for further exploration.
The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem. Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
· The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are.
· Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into subproblems is of the utmost importance.
3 SUBPROBLEM(S)
Subproblems are problems related to the main problem identified. Subproblems flow from the main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set goal in a manageable way and contribute to solving the problem.
4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie the WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the hypothesis.
Research Problems and Paradigms
Some research problems are better suited for studies using qualitative versus quantitative methods. Quantitative studies usually involve concepts that are fairly well developed, about which there is an existing body of literature, and for which reliable methods of measurement have been developed. For example, a quantitative study might be undertaken to determine if postpartum depression is higher among women who are employed 6 months after delivery than among those who stay home with their babies. There are relatively accurate measures of postpartum depression that would yield quantitative information about the level of depression in a sample of employed and nonemployed postpartum women.
Qualitative studies are often undertaken because some aspect of a phenomenon is poorly understood, and the researcher wants to develop a rich, comprehensive, and context-bound understanding of it. Qualitative studies are usually initiated to heighten awareness and create a dialogue about a phenomenon. In the example of postpartum depression, qualitative methods would not be well suited to comparing levels of depression among the two groups of women, but they would be ideal for exploring, for example, the meaning of postpartum depression among new mothers. Thus, the nature of the research question is closely allied to paradigms and research traditions within paradigms.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Students are sometimes puzzled about the origins of research problems. Where do ideas for research problems come from? How do researchers select topic areas and develop research questions? At the most basic level, research topics originate with researchers’ interests. Because research is a time consuming enterprise, curiosity about and interest in a topic are essential to a project’s success. Explicit sources that might fuel researchers’ curiosity include experience, the nursing literature, social issues, theories, and ideas from others.
Experience and Clinical Fieldwork
The nurse’s everyday clinical experience is a rich source of ideas for research problems. As you are performing your nursing functions, you are bound to find a wealth of research ideas if you are curious about why things are the way they are or about how things could be improved if something were to change. You may be well along the way to developing a research idea if you have ever asked the following kinds of questions: Why are things done this way? What information would help to solve this problem? What is the process by which this situation arose? What would happen if? For beginning researchers in particular, clinical experience (or clinical coursework) is often the most compelling source for topics. Immediate problems that need a solution or that excite the curiosity are relevant and interesting and, thus, may generate more enthusiasm than abstract and distant problems inferred from a theory. Clinical fieldwork before a study may also help to identify clinical problems.
TIP: Personal experiences in clinical settings are a provocative source of research ideas. Here are some hints on how to proceed:
• Watch for recurring problems and see if you can discern a pattern in situations that lead to the problem. Example: Why do many patients complain of being tired after being transferred from a coronary care unit to a progressive care unit?
• Think about aspects of your work that are irksome, frustrating, or do not result in the intended outcome — then try to identify factors contributing to the problem that could be changed. Example: Why is suppertime so frustrating in a nursing home?
• Critically examine some decisions you make in performing your functions. Are these decisions based on tradition, or are they based on systematic evidence that supports their efficacy? Many practices in nursing that have become custom might be challenged. Example: What would happen if visiting hours in the intensive care unit were changed from 10 minutes every hour to the regularly scheduled hours existing in the rest of the hospital?
Nursing Literature
Ideas for research projects often come from reading the nursing literature. Beginning nurse researchers can profit from regularly reading nursing journals, either clinical specialty journals or research journals such as Nursing Research or the Western Journal of Nursing Research. Nonresearch articles can be helpful in alerting researchers to clinical trends and issues of importance in clinical settings. Published research reports may suggest problem areas indirectly by stimulating the imagination and directly by specifying further areas ieed of investigation.
Example of a direct suggestion for further research:
Stranahan (2001) studied the relationship betweeurse practitioners’ attitudes about spiritual care and their spiritual care practices. She made several recommendations for further research in her report, such as the following: “Studies should be conducted to determine reasons why nurse practitioners do not practice spiritual care in the primary care setting” (p. 87).
Inconsistencies in the findings reported in nursing literature sometimes generate ideas for studies. For example, there are inconsistencies regarding which type of tactile stimulation or touch (e.g., gentle touch, stroking, rubbing) has the most beneficial physiologic and behavioral effects on preterm infants. Such discrepancies can lead to the design of a study to resolve the matter.
Researchers may also wonder whether a study similar to one reported in a journal article would yield comparable results if applied in a different setting or with a different population. Replications are needed to establish the validity and generalizability of previous findings.
In summary, a familiarity with existing research, or with problematic and controversial nursing issues that have yet to be understood and investigated systematically, is an important route to developing a research topic. Students who are actively seeking a problem to study will find it useful to read widely in areas of interest. In Chapter 5, we deal more extensively with the conduct of research literature reviews.
TIP: In a pinch, do not hesitate to replicate a study that is reported in the research literature. Replications are a valuable learning experience and can make important contributions if they corroborate (or even if they challenge) earlier findings.
Social Issues
Sometimes, topics are suggested by more global contemporary social or political issues of relevance to the health care community. For example, the feminist movement has raised questions about such topics as sexual harassment, domestic violence, and gender equity in health care and in research. The civil rights movement has led to research on minority health problems, access to health care, and culturally sensitive interventions. Thus, an idea for a study may stem from a familiarity with social concerns or controversial social problems.
Theory
The fourth major source of research problems lies in the theories and conceptual schemes that have been developed iursing and related disciplines. To be useful iursing practice, theories must be tested through research for their applicability to hospital units, clinics, classrooms, and other nursing environments.
When researchers decide to base a study on an existing theory, deductions from the theory must be developed. Essentially, researchers must ask the following questions: If this theory is correct, what kind of behavior would I expect to find in certain situations or under certain conditions? What kind of evidence would support this theory? This process, which is described more fully in Chapter 6, would eventually result in a specific problem that could be subjected to systematic investigation.
Ideas From External Sources
External sources can sometimes provide the impetus for a research idea. In some cases, a research topic may be given as a direct suggestion. For example, a faculty member may give students a list of topics from which to choose or may actually assign a specific topic to be studied. Organizations that sponsor funded research, such as government agencies, often identify topics on which research proposals are encouraged. Ideas for research are also being noted on various websites on the internet (see, for example, Duffy, 2001).
Research ideas sometimes represent a response to priorities that are established within the nursing profession, examples of which were discussed in Chapter 1. Priorities for nursing research have been established by many nursing specialty practices. Priority lists can often serve as a useful starting point for exploring research topics.
Often, ideas for studies emerge as a result of a brainstorming session. By discussing possible research topics with peers, advisers or mentors, or researchers with advanced skills, ideas often become clarified and sharpened or enriched and more fully developed. Professional conferences often provide an excellent opportunity for such discussions.
DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Unless a research problem is developed on the basis of theory or an explicit suggestion from an external source, the actual procedures for developing a research topic are difficult to describe. The process is rarely a smooth and orderly one; there are likely to be false starts, inspirations, and setbacks in the process of developing a research problem statement. The few suggestions offered here are not intended to imply that there are techniques for making this first step easy but rather to encourage beginning researchers to persevere in the absence of instant success.
Selecting a Topic
The development of a research problem is a creative process that depends on imagination and ingenuity. In the early stages, when research ideas are being generated, it is wise not to be critical of them immediately. It is better to begin by relaxing and jotting down general areas of interest as they come to mind. At this point, it matters little if the terms used to remind you of your ideas are abstract or concrete, broad or specific, technical, or colloquial—the important point is to put some ideas on paper. Examples of some broad topics that may come to mind include nurse—patient communication, pain in patients with cancer, and postoperative loss of orientation.
After this first step, the ideas can be sorted in terms of interest, knowledge about the topics, and the perceived feasibility of turning the topics into a research project. When the most fruitful idea has been selected, the rest of the list should not be discarded; it may be necessary to return to it.
Beginning researchers often develop problems that are too broad in scope or too complex and unwieldy for their level of methodologic expertise. The transformation of the general topic into a workable problem is typically accomplished in a number of uneven steps, involving a series of successive approximations. Each step should result in progress toward the goals of narrowing the scope of the problem and sharpening and defining the concepts.
As researchers move from general topics to more specific researchable problems, more than one potential problem area can emerge. Let us consider the following example. Suppose you were working on a medical unit and were puzzled by that fact that some patients always complained about having to wait for pain medication when certaiurses were assigned to them and, yet, these same patients offered no complaints with other nurses. The general problem area is discrepancy in complaints from patients regarding pain medications administered by different nurses. You might ask the following: What accounts for this discrepancy? How can I improve the situation? Such questions are not actual research questions; they are too broad and vague. They may, however, lead you to ask other questions, such as the following: How do the two groups of nurses differ? What characteristics are unique to each group of nurses? What characteristics do the group of complaining patients share? At this point, you may observe that the ethnic background of the patients and nurses appears to be a relevant factor. This may direct you to a review of the literature for studies concerning ethnicity in relation to nursing care, or it may provoke you to discuss the observations with others. The result of these efforts may be several researchable questions, such as the following:
• What is the essence of patient complaints among patients of different ethnic backgrounds?
• What is the patient’s experience of waiting for pain medication?
• How do complaints by patients of different ethnic backgrounds get expressed by patients and perceived by nurses?
• Is the ethnic background of nurses related to the frequency with which they dispense pain medication?
• Is the ethnic background of patients related to the frequency and intensity of complaints when waiting for pain medication?
• Does the number of patient complaints increase when patients are of dissimilar ethnic backgrounds as opposed to when they are of the same ethnic background as nurses?
• Do nurses’ dispensing behaviors change as a function of the similarity between their own ethnic background and that of patients?
All these questions stem from the same general problem, yet each would be studied differently — for example, some suggest a qualitative approach and others suggest a quantitative one. A quantitative researcher might become curious about nurses’ dispensing behaviors, based on some interesting evidence in the literature regarding ethnic differences. Both ethnicity and nurses’ dispensing behaviors are variables that can be measured in a straightforward and reliable manner. A qualitative researcher who noticed differences in patient complaints would likely be more interested in understanding the essence of the complaints, the patients’ experience of frustration, the process by which the problem got resolved, or the full nature of the nurse—patient interactions regarding the dispensing of medications. These are aspects of the research problem that would be difficult to quantify.
Researchers choose the final problem to be studied based on several factors, including its inherent interest to them and its compatibility with a paradigm of preference. In addition, tentative problems usually vary in their feasibility and worth. It is at this point that a critical evaluation of ideas is appropriate.
Evaluating Research Problems
There are no rules for making a final selection of a research problem. Some criteria, however, should be kept in mind in the decision-making process. The four most important considerations are the significance, researchability, and feasibility of the problem, and its interest to the researcher.
Significance of the Problem
A crucial factor in selecting a problem to be studied is its significance to nursing — especially to nursing practice. Evidence from the study should have the potential of contributing meaningfully to nursing knowledge. Researchers should pose the following kinds of questions: Is the problem an important one? Will patients, nurses, or the broader health care community or society benefit from the evidence that will be produced? Will the results lead to practical applications? Will the results have theoretical relevance? Will the findings challenge (or lend support to) untested assumptions? Will the study help to formulate or alter nursing practices or policies? If the answer to all these questions is “no,” then the problem should be abandoned.
Researchability of the Problem
Not all problems are amenable to study through scientific investigation. Problems or questions of a moral or ethical nature, although provocative, are incapable of being researched. Take, for example, the following: Should assisted suicide be legalized? The answer to such a question is based on a person’s values. There are no rights or wrong answers, only points of view. The problem is suitable to debate, not to research. To be sure, it is possible to ask related questions that could be researched. For instance, each of the following questions could be investigated in a research project:
• What are nurses’ attitudes toward assisted suicide?
• Do oncology nurses hold more favorable opinions of assisted suicide than other nurses?
• What moral dilemmas are perceived by nurses who might be involved in assisted suicide?
• What are the attitudes of terminally ill patients toward assisted suicide?
• Do terminally ill patients living with a high level of pain hold more favorable attitudes toward assisted suicide than those with less pain?
• How do family members experience the loss of a loved one through assisted suicide?
The findings from these hypothetical projects would have no bearing, of course, on whether assisted suicide should be legalized, but the information could be useful in developing a better understanding of the issues.
In quantitative studies, researchable problems are ones involving variables that can be precisely defined and measured. For example, suppose a researcher is trying to determine what effect early discharge has on patient well-being. Well-being is too vague a concept for a study. The researcher would have to sharpen and define the concept so that it could be observed and measured. That is, the researcher would have to establish criteria against which patients’ progress toward well-being could be assessed.
When a new area of inquiry is being pursued, however, it may be impossible to define the concepts of interest in precise terms. In such cases, it may be appropriate to address the problem using in-depth qualitative research. The problem may then be stated in fairly broad terms to permit full exploration of the concept of interest.
Feasibility of Addressing the Problem
A problem that is both significant and researchable may still be inappropriate if a study designed to address it is not feasible. The issue of feasibility encompasses various considerations. Not all of the following factors are relevant for every problem, but they should be kept in mind in making a final decision.
Time and Timing.
Most studies have deadlines or at least goals for completion. Therefore, the problem must be one that can be adequately studied within the time allotted. This means that the scope of the problem should be sufficiently restricted that enough time will be available for the various steps and activities reviewed in Chapter 3. It is wise to be conservative in estimating time for various tasks because research activities often require more time to accomplish than anticipated. Qualitative studies may be especially time-consuming.
A related consideration is the timing of the project. Some of the research steps — especially data collection — may be more readily performed at certain times of the day, week, or year than at other times. For example, if the problem focused on patients with peptic ulcers, the research might be more easily conducted in the fall and spring because of the increase in the number of patients with peptic ulcers during these seasons. When the timing requirements of the tasks do not match the time available for their performance, the feasibility of the project may be jeopardized.
Availability of Study Participants.
In any study involving humans, researchers need to consider whether individuals with the desired characteristics will be available and willing to cooperate. Securing people’s cooperation may in some cases be easy (e.g., getting nursing students to complete a questionnaire in a classroom), but other situations may pose more difficulties. Some people may not have the time, others may have no interest in a study that has little personal benefit, and others may not feel well enough to participate. Fortunately, people usually are willing to cooperate if research demands are minimal. Researchers may need to exert extra effort in recruiting participants—or may have to offer a monetary incentive—if the research is time-consuming or demanding.
An additional problem may be that of identifying and locating people with needed characteristics. For example, if we were interested in studying the coping strategies of people who had lost a family member through suicide, we would have to develop a plan for identifying prospective participants from this distinct and inconspicuous population.
Cooperation of Others. Often, it is insufficient to obtain the cooperation of prospective study participants alone. If the sample includes children, mentally incompetent people, or senile individuals, it would be necessary to secure the permission of parents or guardians, an issue discussed in the chapter on ethics (see Chapter 7). In institutional or organizational settings (e.g., hospitals), access to clients, members, personnel, or records usually requires administrative authorization. Many health care facilities require that any project be presented to a panel of reviewers for approval. As noted in Chapter
Facilities and Equipment. All studies have resource requirements, although in some cases, needs may be modest. It is prudent to consider what facilities and equipment will be needed and whether they will be available before embarking on a project to avoid disappointment and frustration. The following is a partial list of considerations:
• Will assistants be needed, and are such assistants available?
• If technical equipment and apparatus are needed, can they be secured, and are they functioning properly? Will audiotaping or videotaping equipment be required, and is it of sufficient sensitivity for the research conditions? Will laboratory facilities be required, and are they available?
• Will space be required, and can it be obtained?
• Will telephones, office equipment, or other supplies be required?
• Are duplicating or printing services available, and are they reliable?
• Will transportatioeeds pose any difficulties?
Money. Monetary requirements for research projects vary widely, ranging from $10 to $20 for small student projects to hundreds of thousands (or even millions) of dollars for large-scale, government-sponsored research. The investigator on a limited budget should think carefully about projected expenses before making the final selection of a problem. Some major categories of research-related expenditures are the following:
• Literature costs — computerized literature search and retrieval service charges, Internet access charges, reproduction costs, index cards, books and journals
• Personnel costs — payments to individuals hired to help with the data collection (e.g., for conducting interviews, coding, data entry, transcribing, word processing)
• Study participant costs — payment to participants as an incentive for their cooperation or to offset their own expenses (e.g., transportation or baby-sitting costs)
• Supplies — paper, envelopes, computer disks, postage, audiotapes, and so forth
• Printing and duplication costs — expenditures for printing forms, questionnaires, participant recruitment notices, and so on
• Equipment—laboratory apparatus, audio- or video-recorders, calculators, and the like
• Computer-related expenses (e.g., purchasing software)
• Laboratory fees for the analysis of biophysiologic data
• Transportation costs
