№ 12. Subject: Suppositories.  Tablets

 A suppository is a drug delivery system that is inserted into the rectum (rectal suppository), vagina (vaginal suppository), or urethra (urethral suppository), where it dissolves.They are used to deliver both systemically-acting and locally-acting medications.The alternative term for delivery of medicine via such routes is pharmaceutical pessary.

 The general principle is that the suppository is inserted as a solid, and will dissolve inside the body to deliver the medicine.

 Rectal suppositories  Glycerin suppositories (laxative)

 Rectal suppositories are commonly used for: laxative purposes, with chemicals such as glycerin or bisacodyl treatment of hemorrhoids by delivering a moisturizer or vasoconstrictor delivery of many other systemically-acting medications, such as promethazine or aspirin general medical administration purposes: the substance crosses the rectal mucosa into the bloodstream; examples includeparacetamol (acetaminophen), diclofenac, opiates, and eucalyptol suppositories.

Mode of insertion

 In 1991, Abd-El-Maeboud and his colleagues published a study in The Lancet based upon their investigation into whether there was some hidden and forgotten knowledge behind the traditional shape of a rectal suppository.

 Their research very clearly demonstrated that there was, indeed, a very good reason for the traditional “torpedo” shape; namely, that the shape had a strong influence on the extent to which the rectal suppository traveled internally — and, thus, upon its increased efficiency.

 They (counter-intuitively) found that the ideal mode of insertion was to insert suppositories “blunt”-end first, rather than the generally used mode of inserting the “pointy”-end first. This conclusion was based on the greater distance of internal travel of the suppository once inserted, which was entirely a mechanical consequence of the natural actions of the bowel’s muscular structure and the rectal configuration.

 As a consequence, and in order to guarantee the maximum optimal efficiency, they recommended that all rectal suppositories be inserted “blunt”-end first. The findings of this single study have been challenged as insufficient evidence on which to base clinical practice.

 Non-laxative rectal suppositories are to be used after defecation, so as not to be expelled before they are fully dissolved and the substance is absorbed. The use of a examination glove or a finger cot can ease insertion by protecting the rectal wall and the fingernail(s) from each other.

Vaginal suppositories

 Vaginal suppositories are commonly used to treat gynecological ailments, including vaginal infections such as candidiasis.

Urethral suppositories

 Alprostadil pellets are urethral suppositories used for the treatment of severe erectile dysfunction. They are marketed under the name Muse in the United States.[3] Its use has diminished since the development of oral impotence medications, but is still on the market.

Constituents

 Some suppositories are made from a greasy base, such as cocoa butter, in which the active ingredient and other excipients are dissolved; this grease will melt at body temperature (this may be a source of discomfort for the patient, as the melted grease may pass through the anus during flatulences). Other suppositories are made from a water soluble base, such as polyethylene glycol. Suppositories made from polyethylene glycol are commonly used in vaginal and urethral suppositories. Glycerin suppositories are made of glycerol and gelatin.

Indications

 Eucalyptol suppository, for the treatment of some respiratory ailments

 Suppositories may be used for patients in the event it may be easier to administer than tablets or syrups. Suppositories may also be used when a patient has a vomiting tendency, as oral medication can be vomited out. Drugs which often cause stomach upset, for example diclofenac sodium (Voltaren) are better tolerated in suppository form.

“Liquid suppository”

 The phrase “liquid suppository” is also sometimes applied to the activity of injecting a liquid, typically a laxative, with a small syringe, into the rectum.

Using Suppositories for Constipation Relief

 A suppository is a small medicine filled package which is inserted into the rectum. It is filled with an over-the-counter medicine calledbisacodyl or glycerin, which are characterized as stimulant laxatives.

Suppositories are mostly used for the following reasons:

To relieve symptoms of constipation or impaction. To cleanse the rectum and lower intestines in preparation for an examination. To remove feces to prevent contamination during a surgical procedure.

 The medication used in suppositories, bisacodyl and glycerin, are considered stimulant laxatives. When the suppository is inserted about an inch inside the rectum it begins to melt releasing the medication. The medication stimulates the nerve endings in the rectum and colon walls. The muscles in the colon walls will start to contract; this is known as peristalsis. It is the peristalsis action of the colon that breaks up and moves any impacted fecal matter through the intestines relieving constipation.

 Insertion of suppository should be done while lying on your left side with your left knee slightly bent or straight and your right kneeraised to your chest. Insert the pointed end of the suppository about one inch into your rectum using one finger. After the suppository is inserted into the rectum you should continue to lay on you side for about 15 minutes to ensure it doesn’t evacuate before it melts. Once inserted you can expect results in about 15-30 minutes. It is important to wash your hand before and after the insertion of suppository to prevent any infection.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Suppository Use Side Effects

 It’s not unusual to experience some side effects after the use of suppositories. In the interest of your health it is important to report them to your doctor. They may include: Diarrhea

Dehydration Rectal irritation (burning or itching) Dizziness Abdominal cramping or pain Tiredness Nausea

Pre-cautions when using Suppositories

 There are certain conditions under which a suppository should not be used. If you think you may be suffering from these conditions you should first consult your physician before considering a suppository.

Pregnant, trying to pregnant, or nursing. Rectal suppositories are stimulant laxatives which are okay to use as a temporary solution for relief of symptoms associated with constipation. However, repeated frequent use of suppositories can cause damage. The insertion of anything into a rectum always comes with risks. To limit the risks of getting any perforations, fissures, or tears when using a suppository it is important to make sure that the pointed tip is inserted first. To ease the insertion you can run the suppository under warm water or use a small amount of a water based lubricant. Long term use of stimulant laxatives can cause chronic diarrhea which can lead to low potassium levels and electrolyte imbalances. These imbalances often times lead to kidney problems. Lastly, repeated uses of suppositories to combat constipation can make the problem worse in the long run. Suppositories only temporarily stimulate the colon walls and do not strengthen the colon. If used over long periods of time they can actually weaken the colon muscles. When those muscles are weak they lack the peristalsis

 

 

actioecessary to keep fecal matter moving through the colon. Suppositories should not be used for more than 5 consecutive days. If you are not finding relief from your symptoms or your constipation persists your doctor should be consulted.

Summary

 Constipation is something the medical community does not focus much attention on. This is partly because the long-term solution is within your reach, and doesn’t require the help of your physician. It just takes time and effort.

 Because of the way constipation makes you feel, it’s probably difficult to imagine being able to work up the energy to focus on solving your own problem. But if your want real, long-term relief, and wish to live a life full of energy and vitality – free of constipation and the woes that come with it – it’s up to you to tweak your lifestyle in order to achieve success.

Take charge of your own health and implement what has been effectively relieving constipation for thousands of years…in fact; change your lifestyle to reflect a time long before constipation even existed!

How to Use Rectal Suppositories Properly

1Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water.
2If the suppository is soft, hold it under cool water or place it in a refrigerator for a few minutes to harden it before removing the wrapper.
3Remove the wrapper, if present.
4If you were told to use half of the suppository, cut it lengthwise with a clean, single-edge razor blade.
5Put on a finger cot or disposable glove, if desired (available at a pharmacy).
6Lubricate the suppository tip with a water-soluble lubricant such as K-Y Jelly, not petroleum jelly (Vaseline). If you do not have this lubricant, moisten your rectal area with cool tap water.
7Lie on your side with your lower leg straightened out and your upper leg bent forward toward your stomach.
8Lift upper buttock to expose the rectal area.
9Insert the suppository, pointed end first, with your finger until it passes the muscular sphincter of the rectum, about 1/2 to 1 inch in infants and 1 inch in adults. (If not inserted past this sphincter, the suppository may pop out.)
10   Hold buttocks together for a few seconds.
11   Remain lying down for about 5 minutes to avoid having the suppository come out.
12   Discard used materials and wash your hands    thoroughly.

Remember

• Follow directions carefully
• Do not miss doses
• Store suppositories in a cool place and avoid melting; refrigerate them if so labeled
• Store medications out of reach of children

Other useful advice

·         Once in the rectum the suppository will melt and may leak from your rectum. You may find it more comfortable to insert the suppository before going to bed at night rather than during the day, however follow the instructions given by your doctor. If you do insert suppositories during the day, be aware that some suppositories can stain your clothes.

·         STORAGE: store your suppositories in a cool dark place, but not in the fridge unless specifically instructed. If they get too warm they may melt and not be firm enough to insert.

·         Always keep medicines out of the reach of children.

·         Always use the medicine according to the printed label or as instructed by your doctor or pharmacist.

·         Don’t give your medicines to anyone else to use, even if they have the same symptoms as you. They may be harmful to other people.

·         If you miss a dose of your medicine, take the dose as soon as you remember, and then go on as before.

·         Suppositories are designed only for insertion into the rectum and must not be taken by mouth. If they are accidentally swallowed, tell your doctor at once.

·         Do not use your suppositories after the expiry date on the pack.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Suppositories for Children?

 

Before using, the pros and cons of suppositories for children should be considered. Depending on the condition being treated, the pros of using a suppository method of treatment may vary, but may include ease of giving required dosages and no risk of the medication being thrown up by a child suffering from nausea and vomiting. Cons include the fact that suppositories are often uncomfortable for the patient to use and may result in a continued need for them in conditions such as constipation.

There are two main conditions which may warrant the use of suppositories for children. The first and most common is constipation, which may require the use of glycerin suppositories to promote a bowel movement. Benefits of using this method when compared with others include the fact that even

very young infants can safely use glycerin inserts and they are often less harsh on the body than chemical laxatives. They do not enter the bloodstream but work because the glycerin melts inside the colon and lubricates hardened stools, making them easier to pass.

One downside of laxative suppositories for children is that if they are used too frequently,children may become dependent on them. Insertion of the suppository, in addition to the glycerin melting to produce a bowel movement, also stimulates the rectal muscles. This also has a laxative effect by causing involuntary straining. Sometimes frequent stimulation in this way can create a dependency, meaning the sphincter muscles may become weakened and need artificial stimulation for every bowel movement.

Other suppositories for children are used for nausea and vomiting. These are used when vomiting is so severe that an oral medication will not stay down. Medication is allowed to effectively enter the body and treat the symptoms, which is important in young childrenbecause severe vomiting can lead to dehydration.

 

Downsides of using these types of suppositories for children include the fact that they are often uncomfortable and may result in a strong urge to have a bowel movement. This feeling generally passes once the suppository has melted, but can

be very uncomfortable in the meantime. In patients who are also suffering from diarrhea, insertion may stimulate a bowel movement. Children may also feel self-conscious having a parent or physician insert the medication.

Suppositories for children should not be used unless other methods of treatment are either not available or not advised for one reason or another. Although they are not generally dangerous, using rectally inserted medications can be uncomfortable for both the parent and child. As with any medication, parents should consult a doctor or pharmacist before usingsuppositories. Consultation is especially advised when being used with a child under the age of two.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tablets

A tablet is a pharmaceutical dosage form. It comprises a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted from a powder into a solid dose. The excipients can include diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to promote tablet break-up in the digestive tract; sweeteners or flavours to enhance taste; and pigments to make the tablets visually attractive. A polymer coating is often applied to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the active ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending its shelf life), or to enhance the tablet’s appearance.

The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally. The tablet is just one of the many forms that an oral drug can take such as syrups, elixirs, suspensions, and emulsions. Medicinal tablets were originally made in the shape of a disk of whatever color their components determined, but are now made in many shapes and colors to help distinguish different medicines. Tablets are often stamped with symbols, letters, and numbers, which enable them to be identified. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimeters to about a centimeter. Some tablets are in the shape of capsules, and are called “caplets”. Medicinal tablets and capsules are often called pills. However, pills are ancient solid dose forms prepared by rolling a soft while tablets are made by compression. Other products are manufactured in the form of tablets which are designed to dissolve or disintegrate; e.g. cleaning and deodorizing products.

In the tablet-pressing process, it is important that all ingredients be fairly dry, powdered or granular, somewhat uniform in particle size, and freely flowing. Mixed particle sized powders can segregate during manufacturing operations due to different densities, which can result in tablets with poor drug or active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content uniformity but granulation should prevent this. Content uniformity ensures that the same API dose is delivered with each tablet.

Some APIs may be tableted as pure substances, but this is rarely the case; most formulations include excipients. Normally, an pharmacologically inactive ingredient (excipient) termed a binder is added to help hold the tablet together and give it strength. A wide variety of binders may be used, some common ones including lactose, dibasic calcium phosphate, sucrose, corn (maize) starch, microcrystalline cellulose, povidone polyvinylpyrrolidone and modified cellulose (for example hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and hydroxyethylcellulose).

Often, an ingredient is also needed to act as a disintegrant to aid tablet dispersion once swallowed, releasing the API for absorption. Some binders, such as starch and cellulose, are also excellent disintegrants.

Tablets are simple and convenient to use. They provide an accurately measured dosage of the active ingredient in a convenient portable package, and can be designed to protect unstable medications or disguise unpalatable ingredients. Colored coatings, embossed markings and printing can be used to aid tablet recognition. Manufacturing processes and techniques can provide tablets special properties, for example, sustained release or fast dissolving formulations.

Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the “first pass effect”), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosae, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not be suitable. For example salbutamol, used to treat problems in the pulmonary system, can have effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling smaller doses direct to the required site of action. A proportion of the population have difficulties swallowing tablets either because they just don’t like taking them or because their medical condition makes it difficult for them (dysphagia, vomiting). In such instances it may be better to consider alternative dosage form or administration route.

Tablets can be made in virtually any shape, although requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most are round, oval or capsule shaped. More unusual shapes have been manufactured but patients find these harder to swallow, and they are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems.

Tablet diameter and shape are determined by the machine tooling used to produce them – a die plus an upper and a lower punch are required. This is called a station of tooling. The thickness is determined by the amount of tablet material and the position of the punches in relation to each other during compression. Once this is done, we can measure the corresponding pressure applied during compression. The shorter the distance between the punches, thickness, the greater the pressure applied during compression, and sometimes the harder the tablet. Tablets need to be hard enough that they don’t break up in the bottle, yet friable enough that they disintegrate in the gastric tract.

Tablets need to be strong enough to resist the stresses of packaging, shipping and handling by the pharmacist and patient. The mechanical strength of tablets is assessed using a combination of (i) simple failure and erosion tests, and (ii) more sophisticated engineering tests. The simpler tests are often used for quality control purposes, whereas the more complex tests are used during the design of the formulation and manufacturing process in the research and development phase. Standards for tablet properties are published in the various international pharmacopeias (USP/NF, EP, JP, etc.). The hardness of tablets is the principle measure of mechanical strength. Hardness is tested using a tablet hardness tester. The units for hardness have evolved since the 1930s, but are commonly measured in kilograms per square centimeter. Models of tester include the Monsanto (or Stokes) Hardness Tester from 1930, the Pfizer Hardness Tester from 1950, the Strong Cob Hardness Tester and the Heberlain (or Schleeniger) Hardness Tester.

Lubricants prevent ingredients from clumping together and from sticking to the tablet punches or capsule filling machine. Lubricants also ensure that tablet formation and ejection can occur with low friction between the solid and die wall, as well as between granules, which helps in uniform filling of the die.

Common minerals like talc or silica, and fats, e.g. vegetable stearin, magnesium stearate or stearic acid are the most frequently used lubricants in tablets or hard gelatin capsules.

Manufacture of the tableting blend

In the tablet pressing process, the main guideline is to ensure that the appropriate amount of active ingredient is in each tablet. Hence, all the ingredients should be well-mixed. If a sufficiently homogenous mix of the components cannot be obtained with simple blending processes, the ingredients must be granulated prior to compression to assure an even distribution of the active compound in the final tablet. Two basic techniques are used to granulate powders for compression into a tablet: wet granulation and dry granulation. Powders that can be mixed well do not require granulation and can be compressed into tablets through direct compression.

Wet granulation

Wet granulation is a process of using a liquid binder to lightly agglomerate the powder mixture. The amount of liquid has to be properly controlled, as over-wetting will cause the granules to be too hard and under-wetting will cause them to be too soft and friable. Aqueous solutions have the advantage of being safer to deal with than solvent-based systems but may not be suitable for drugs which are degraded by hydrolysis.

 

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction

The Objective-with-the-Infinitive construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the Common Case or to a pronoun in the Objective case.

I saw him cross the street.

It performs the function of a Complex Object in the sentence.

This construction can be used after the following categories of verbs:

1.         Verbs of sense perception – to see, to hear, to watch, to notice, to observe, etc.

It was considered a good omen if a warrior saw a raven follow him.

The bare Infinitive is used here.

Notes:

a.             The construction is not used after the verb to see used in the meaning of understand.

I saw that she did not understand the rule and explained it again. 

b.             The construction is not used after the verb to hear used in the meaning to be aware of something.

I hear that your brother has got married. 

c.              When the meaning is passive, Participle II in the Objective Participial construction is usually used.

I saw his camera broken by the policeman.

2.         Verbs of mental activity – to consider, to expect, to mean, to think, to believe, to presume, etc.

The Turkish garrison of Azov expected the Russians to return after their previous failure.

Note: After the verbs to consider, to find and ….. (забыл) the verb to be can be omitted.

I consider him (to be) a first rate programmer.

I find him (to be) pretty.

3.         Verbs denoting wish – to want, to wish, to desire, would like, etc.

I want you to do it at once.

Note: When the meaning is passive, Participle II in the Objective Participial construction is usually used.

The captain wants the ship unloaded at once.

4.         Verbs of compulsion – to order, to make, to force, to compel, to cause , to bid (bade, bidden), etc.

Peter ordered a ship from Holland to be delivered to Archangel next summer.

5.         Verbs of allowance – to allow, to permit, to let, etc.

She allowed our luggage to be left at her place.

6.         Verbs of declarance – to declare, to announce, to proclaim, etc.

She declared him to be the most disobedient child in the world.

7.         Verbs expressing feelings and emotions – to like, to love, to dislike, to hate, cannot stand, etc.

I hate people to be late.

Present Simple Tense

I sing

How do we make the Present Simple Tense?

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		do		base

There are three important exceptions:

1.     For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.

2.     For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.

3.     For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I, you, we, they			like	coffee.
	He, she, it			likes	coffee.
–	I, you, we, they	do	not	like	coffee.
	He, she, it	does	not	like	coffee.
?	Do	I, you, we, they		like	coffee?
	Does	he, she, it		like	coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

	subject	main verb
+	I	am		French.
	You, we, they	are		French.
	He, she, it	is		French.
–	I	am	not	old.
	You, we, they	are	not	old.
	He, she, it	is	not	old.
?	Am	I		late?
	Are	you, we, they		late?
	Is	he, she, it		late?

How do we use the Present Simple Tense?

We use the present simple tense when:

·         the action is general

 

 

·          

·         the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future

·         the action is not only happening now

·         the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.
past	present	future
It is John’s job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

• I live in New York.
• The Moon goes round the Earth.
• John drives a taxi.
• He does not drive a bus.
• We meet every Thursday.
• We do not work at night.
• Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the present simple tense for situations that are not general. We can use the present simple tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb “to be” in the present simple tense – some of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right? Tara is not at home. You are happy.
past	present	future
The situation is now.

 

 

 

 

 

I am not fat. Why are you so beautiful? Ram is tall.
past	present	future
The situation is general. Past, present and future.

 

 

Present Continuous

am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

• You are watching TV.
• Are you watching TV?
• You are not watching TV.

Complete List of Present Continuous Forms

USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.

Examples:

• You are learning English now.
• You are not swimming now.
• Are you sleeping?
• I am sitting.
• I am not standing.
• Is he sitting or standing?
• They are reading their books.
• They are not watching television.
• What are you doing?
• Why aren’t you doing your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, “now” can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)

• I am studying to become a doctor.
• I am not studying to become a dentist.
• I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.
• I am not reading any books right now.
• Are you working on any special projects at work?
• Aren’t you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

• I am meeting some friends after work.
• I am not going to the party tonight.
• Is he visiting his parents next weekend?
• Isn’t he coming with us tonight?

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with “Always”

The Present Continuous with words such as “always” or “constantly” expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words “always” or “constantly” between “be” and “verb+ing.”

Examples:

• She is always coming to class late.
• He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.
• I don’t like them because they are always complaining.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certaion-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present.

Examples:

• She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct
• She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You are still watching TV.
• Are you still watching TV?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Right now, Tom is writing the letter. Active
• Right now, the letter is being written by Tom. Passive

Simple Past

 [VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

• You called Debbie.
• Did you call Debbie?
• You did not call Debbie.

 

 

 

USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

• I saw a movie yesterday.
• I didn’t see a play yesterday.
• Last year, I traveled to Japan.
• Last year, I didn’t travel to Korea.
• Did you have dinner last night?
• She washed her car.
• He didn’t wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

• I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
• He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
• Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

• I lived in Brazil for two years.
• Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
• They sat at the beach all day.
• They did not stay at the party the entire time.
• We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
• A: How long did you wait for them?
  B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as “used to.” To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

• I studied French when I was a child.
• He played the violin.
• He didn’t play the piano.
• Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
• She worked at the movie theater after school.
• They never went to school, they always skipped class.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression “used to.”

Examples:

• She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
• He didn’t like tomatoes before.
• Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
• People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are ofteot complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word “when” such as “when I dropped my pen…” or “when class began…” These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

• When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
• She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether “when I paid her one dollar” is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

• I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You just called Debbie.
• Did you just call Debbie?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Tom repaired the car. Active
• The car was repaired by Tom. Passive

Past Continuous

FORM

[was/were + present participle]

Examples:

• You were studying when she called.
• Were you studying when she called?
• You were not studying when she called.

 

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

• I was watching TV when she called.
• When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
• While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
• What were you doing when the earthquake started?
• I was listening to my iPod, so I didn’t hear the fire alarm.
• You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
• While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
• Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
• While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
• A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?
  B: I was snowboarding.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
• At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
• Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

IMPORTANT

In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished. In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action.

Examples:

• Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner.
  I started eating at 6 PM.
• Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
  I started earlier; and at 6 PM, I was in the process of eating dinner.

USE 3 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

• I was studying while he was making dinner.
• While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.
• Were you listening while he was talking?
• I wasn’t paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I made several mistakes.
• What were you doing while you were waiting?
• Thomas wasn’t working, and I wasn’t working either.
• They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

USE 4 Atmosphere

In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.

Example:

• When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing, some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to each other about the bad service.

 

 

 

 

USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with “Always”

The Past Continuous with words such as “always” or “constantly” expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar to the expression “used to” but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words “always” or “constantly” between “be” and “verb+ing.”

Examples:

• She was always coming to class late.
• He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.
• I didn’t like them because they were always complaining.

While vs. When

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are ofteot complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word “when” such as “when she called” or “when it bit me.” Other clauses begin with “while” such as “while she was sleeping” and “while he was surfing.” When you talk about things in the past, “when” is most often followed by the verb tense Simple Past, whereas “while” is usually followed by Past Continuous. “While” expresses the idea of “during that time.” Study the examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize different parts of the sentence.

Examples:

• I was studying when she called.
• While I was studying, she called.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certaion-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Past.

Examples:

• Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct
• Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You were just studying when she called.
• Were you just studying when she called?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. Active
• The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. Passive

Present Perfect

FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?
• You have not seen that movie many times.

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.
• There have been many earthquakes in California.
• People have traveled to the Moon.
• People have not traveled to Mars.
• Have you read the book yet?
• Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
• A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
  B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of “unspecified time” can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:

TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, “I have the experience of…” You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

• I have been to France.
  This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
• I have been to France three times.
  You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
• I have never been to France.
  This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.
• I think I have seen that movie before.
• He has never traveled by train.
• Joan has studied two foreign languages.
• A: Have you ever met him?
  B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.
• Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies program was established.
• My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.
• Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
• Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn’t mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
• Bill has still not arrived.
• The rain hasn’t stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
• We have had many major problems while working on this project.
• She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can do this with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:

• Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
• I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
• They have had three tests in the last week.
• She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three different companies so far.
• My car has broken down three times this week.

NOTICE

“Last year” and “in the last year” are very different in meaning. “Last year” means the year before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. “In the last year” means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

• I went to Mexico last year.
  I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
• I have been to Mexico in the last year.
  I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365 days ago and now.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. “For five minutes,” “for two weeks,” and “since Tuesday” are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

• I have had a cold for two weeks.
• She has been in England for six months.
• Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words “live,” “work,” “teach,” and “study” are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You have only seen that movie one time.
• Have you only seen that movie one time?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Many tourists have visited that castle. Active
• That castle has been visited by many tourists. Passive

Present Perfect Continuous

 [has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

• You have been waiting here for two hours.
• Have you been waiting here for two hours?
• You have not been waiting here for two hours.

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. “For five minutes,” “for two weeks,” and “since Tuesday” are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

Examples:

• They have been talking for the last hour.
• She has been working at that company for three years.
• What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
• James has been teaching at the university since June.
• We have been waiting here for over two hours!
• Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?

USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as “for two weeks.” Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of “lately.” We often use the words “lately” or “recently” to emphasize this meaning.

Examples:

• Recently, I have been feeling really tired.
• She has been watching too much television lately.
• Have you been exercising lately?
• Mary has been feeling a little depressed.
• Lisa has not been practicing her English.
• What have you been doing?

IMPORTANT

Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of “lately” or “recently.” If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as “Have you been feeling alright?”, it can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as “Have you been smoking?” can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect.

Examples:

• Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct
• Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You have only been waiting here for one hour.
• Have you only been waiting here for one hour?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Recently, John has been doing the work. Active
• Recently, the work has been being done by John. Passive

NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous is less commonly used in its passive form.

Past Perfect

FORM

[had + past participle]

Examples:

• You had studied English before you moved to New York.
• Had you studied English before you moved to New York?
• You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

Examples:

• I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.
• I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
• Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.
• Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
• She only understood the movie because she had read the book.
• Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.
• We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.
• A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?
  B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

• We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
• By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
• They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.

Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words “live,” “work,” “teach,” and “study” are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

Example:

• She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

MOREOVER

If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when “before” or “after” is used in the sentence. The words “before” and “after” actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct.

Examples:

• She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.
• She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

HOWEVER

If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used.

Examples:

• She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct
• She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You had previously studied English before you moved to New York.
• Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic’s license. Active
• Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic’s license. Passive

Past Perfect Continuous

FORM

[had been + present participle]

Examples:

• You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
• Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
• You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. “For five minutes” and “for two weeks” are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Examples:

• They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
• She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.
• How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
• Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.
• James had been teaching at the university for more than a year before he left for Asia.
• A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara?
  B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.

 

 

 

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

• Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
• Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
• Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as “for five minutes,” “for two weeks” or “since Friday,” many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

• He was tired because he was exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was exercising at that exact moment.
• He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been exercising over a period of time. It is possible that he was still exercising at that moment OR that he had just finished.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect.

Examples:

• The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before Tina bought it. Not Correct
• The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina bought it. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived.
• Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she arrived?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant’s fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. Active
• The restaurant’s fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. Passive

NOTE: Passive forms of the Past Perfect Continuous are not common.

Simple Future

Simple Future has two different forms in English: “will” and “be going to.” Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both “will” and “be going to” refer to a specific time in the future.

FORM Will

[will + verb]

Examples:

• You will help him later.
• Will you help him later?
• You will not help him later.

FORM Be Going To

[am/is/are + going to + verb]

Examples:

• You are going to meet Jane tonight.
• Are you going to meet Jane tonight?
• You are not going to meet Jane tonight.

USE 1 “Will” to Express a Voluntary Action

“Will” often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use “will” to respond to someone else’s complaint or request for help. We also use “will” when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use “will not” or “won’t” when we refuse to voluntarily do something.

Examples:

• I will send you the information when I get it.
• I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it.
• Will you help me move this heavy table?
• Will you make dinner?
• I will not do your homework for you.
• I won’t do all the housework myself!
• A: I’m really hungry.
  B: I‘ll make some sandwiches.
• A: I’m so tired. I’m about to fall asleep.
  B: I‘ll get you some coffee.
• A: The phone is ringing.
  B: I‘ll get it.

USE 2 “Will” to Express a Promise

“Will” is usually used in promises.

Examples:

• I will call you when I arrive.
• If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance.
• I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.
• Don’t worry, I‘ll be careful.
• I won’t tell anyone your secret.

USE 3 “Be going to” to Express a Plan

“Be going to” expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.

Examples:

• He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.
• She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.
• A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?
  B: We are going to meet at 6 PM.
• I‘m going to be an actor when I grow up.
• Michelle is going to begin medical school next year.
• They are going to drive all the way to Alaska.
• Who are you going to invite to the party?
• A: Who is going to make John’s birthday cake?
  B: Sue is going to make John’s birthday cake.

USE 4 “Will” or “Be Going to” to Express a Prediction

Both “will” and “be going to” can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In “prediction” sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.

Examples:

• The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.
• The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year.

• John Smith will be the next President.
• John Smith is going to be the next President.

• The movie “Zenith” will win several Academy Awards.
• The movie “Zenith” is going to win several Academy Awards.

IMPORTANT

In the Simple Future, it is not always clear which USE the speaker has in mind. Often, there is more than one way to interpret a sentence’s meaning.

No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used.

Examples:

• When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct
• When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will never help him.
• Will you ever help him?

• You are never going to meet Jane.
• Are you ever going to meet Jane?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• John will finish the work by 5:00 PM. Active
• The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. Passive

• Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. Active
• A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight. Passive

Future Continuous

Future Continuous has two different forms: “will be doing ” and “be going to be doing.” Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Continuous with “Will”

[will be + present participle]

Examples:

• You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
• Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
• You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

FORM Future Continuous with “Be Going To “

[am/is/are + going to be + present participle]

Examples:

• You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.
• Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?
• You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

REMEMBER: It is possible to use either “will” or “be going to” to create the Future Continuous with little difference in meaning.

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future

Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

• I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.
• I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.
• I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens and you need to contact me.
• He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Jennifer when she arrives.

Notice in the examples above that the interruptions (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
  I will be in the process of eating dinner.
• At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.
  We will be in the process of driving through the desert.

REMEMBER

In the Simple Future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the Future Continuous, a specific time interrupts the action.

Examples:

• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner.
  I am going to start eating at 6 PM.
• Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
  I am going to start earlier and I will be in the process of eating dinner at 6 PM.

USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future

When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

• I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.
• Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.
• While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.
  Notice “is reading” because of the time clause containing “while.”

USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future

In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future.

Example:

• When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future tenses, the Future Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Continuous, Present Continuous is used.

Examples:

• While I am going to be finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Not Correct
• While I am finishing my homework, she is going to make dinner. Correct

AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Future.

Examples:

• Jane will be being at my house when you arrive. Not Correct
• Jane will be at my house when you arrive. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will still be waiting for her when her plane arrives.
• Will you still be waiting for her when her plane arrives?

• You are still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives.
• Are you still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes. Active
• At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John. Passive

• At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes. Active
• At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John. Passive

NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Continuous are not common.

Future Perfect

Future Perfect has two different forms: “will have done” and “be going to have done.” Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect with “Will”

[will have + past participle]

Examples:

• You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.
• Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?
• You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

FORM Future Perfect with “Be Going To”

[am/is/are + going to have + past participle]

Examples:

• You are going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.
• Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?
• You are not going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

NOTE: It is possible to use either “will” or “be going to” to create the Future Perfect with little or no difference in meaning.

Complete List of Future Perfect Forms

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Future

The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future.

Examples:

• By next November, I will have received my promotion.
• By the time he gets home, she is going to have cleaned the entire house.
• I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o’clock.
• Will she have learned enough Chinese to communicate before she moves to Beijing?
• Sam is probably going to have completed the proposal by the time he leaves this afternoon.
• By the time I finish this course, I will have taken ten tests.
• How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50?

Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Future (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Future Perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in the future.

Examples:

• I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave.
• By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week.

Although the above use of Future Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words “live,” “work,” “teach,” and “study” are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used.

Examples:

• I am going to see a movie when I will have finished my homework. Not Correct
• I am going to see a movie when I have finished my homework. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will only have learned a few words.
• Will you only have learned a few words?

• You are only going to have learned a few words.
• Are you only going to have learned a few words?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• They will have completed the project before the deadline. Active
• The project will have been completed before the deadline. Passive

• They are going to have completed the project before the deadline. Active
• The project is going to have been completed before the deadline. Passive

Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: “will have been doing ” and “be going to have been doing.” Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect Continuous with “Will”

[will have been + present participle]

Examples:

• You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.
• Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?
• You will not have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

FORM Future Perfect Continuous with “Be Going To”

[am/is/are + going to have been + present participle]

Examples:

• You are going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.
• Are you going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives?
• You are not going to have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

NOTE: It is possible to use either “will” or “be going to” to create the Future Perfect Continuous with little or no difference in meaning.

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future

We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will continue up until a particular event or time in the future. “For five minutes,” “for two weeks,” and “since Friday” are all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference point in the future.

Examples:

• They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.
• She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it finally closes.
• James will have been teaching at the university for more than a year by the time he leaves for Asia.
• How long will you have been studying when you graduate?
• We are going to have been driving for over three days straight when we get to Anchorage.
• A: When you finish your English course, will you have been living in New Zealand for over a year?
  B: No, I will not have been living here that long.

Notice in the examples above that the reference points (marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than Simple Future. This is because these future events are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future

Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

• Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.
• Claudia’s English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years.

Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as “for five minutes,” “for two weeks” or “since Friday,” many English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the future. Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

• He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he will be tired because he will be exercising at that exact moment in the future.
• He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard.
  This sentence emphasizes that he will be tired because he will have been exercising for a period of time. It is possible that he will still be exercising at that moment OR that he will just have finished.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous is used.

Examples:

• You won’t get a promotion until you will have been working here as long as Tim. Not Correct
• You won’t get a promotion until you have been working here as long as Tim. Correct

AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certaion-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Future Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Future Perfect .

Examples:

• Ned will have been having his driver’s license for over two years. Not Correct
• Ned will have had his driver’s license for over two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You will only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.
• Will you only have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?

• You are only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives.
• Are you only going to have been waiting for a few minutes when her plane arrives?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. Active
• The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. Passive

• The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. Active
• The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. Passive

NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Perfect Continuous are not common.

 

 

 

 

 

Common English Irregular Verb List

Base Form	Past Simple	Past Participle	3rd Person Singular	Present Participle / Gerund
Abide	Abode/Abided	Abode/Abided/Abidden	Abides	Abiding
Alight	Alit/Alighted	Alit/Alighted	Alights	Alighting
Arise	Arose	Arisen	Arises	Arising
Awake	Awoke	Awoken	Awakes	Awaking
Be	Was/Were	Been	Is	Being
Bear	Bore	Born/Borne	Bears	Bearing
Beat	Beat	Beaten	Beats	Beating
Become	Became	Become	Becomes	Becoming
Begin	Began	Begun	Begins	Beginning
Behold	Beheld	Beheld	Beholds	Beholding
Bend	Bent	Bent	Bends	Bending
Bet	Bet	Bet	Bets	Betting
Bid	Bade	Bidden	Bids	Bidding
Bid	Bid	Bid	Bids	Bidding
Bind	Bound	Bound	Binds	Binding
Bite	Bit	Bitten	Bites	Biting
Bleed	Bled	Bled	Bleeds	Bleeding
Blow	Blew	Blown	Blows	Blowing
Break	Broke	Broken	Breaks	Breaking
Breed	Bred	Bred	Breeds	Breeding
Bring	Brought	Brought	Brings	Bringing
Broadcast	Broadcast/Broadcasted	Broadcast/Broadcasted	Broadcasts	Broadcasting
Build	Built	Built	Builds	Building
Burn	Burnt/Burned	Burnt/Burned	Burns	Burning
Burst	Burst	Burst	Bursts	Bursting
Bust	Bust	Bust	Busts	Busting
Buy	Bought	Bought	Buys	Buying
Cast	Cast	Cast	Casts	Casting
Catch	Caught	Caught	Catches	Catching
Choose	Chose	Chosen	Chooses	Choosing
Clap	Clapped/Clapt	Clapped/Clapt	Claps	Clapping
Cling	Clung	Clung	Clings	Clinging
Clothe	Clad/Clothed	Clad/Clothed	Clothes	Clothing
Come	Came	Come	Comes	Coming
Cost	Cost	Cost	Costs	Costing
Creep	Crept	Crept	Creeps	Creeping
Cut	Cut	Cut	Cuts	Cutting
Dare	Dared/Durst	Dared	Dares	Daring
Deal	Dealt	Dealt	Deals	Dealing
Dig	Dug	Dug	Digs	Digging
Dive	Dived/Dove	Dived	Dives	Diving
Do	Did	Done	Does	Doing
Draw	Drew	Drawn	Draws	Drawing
Dream	Dreamt/Dreamed	Dreamt/Dreamed	Dreams	Dreaming
Drink	Drank	Drunk	Drinks	Drinking
Drive	Drove	Driven	Drives	Driving
Dwell	Dwelt	Dwelt	Dwells	Dwelling
Eat	Ate	Eaten	Eats	Eating
Fall	Fell	Fallen	Falls	Falling
Feed	Fed	Fed	Feeds	Feeding
Feel	Felt	Felt	Feels	Feeling
Fight	Fought	Fought	Fights	Fighting
Find	Found	Found	Finds	Finding
Fit	Fit/Fitted	Fit/Fitted	Fits	Fitting
Flee	Fled	Fled	Flees	Fleeing
Fling	Flung	Flung	Flings	Flinging
Fly	Flew	Flown	Flies	Flying
Forbid	Forbade/Forbad	Forbidden	Forbids	Forbidding
Forecast	Forecast/Forecasted	Forecast/Forecasted	Forecasts	Forecasting
Foresee	Foresaw	Foreseen	Foresees	Foreseeing
Foretell	Foretold	Foretold	Foretells	Foretelling
Forget	Forgot	Forgotten	Forgets	Foregetting
Forgive	Forgave	Forgiven	Forgives	Forgiving
Forsake	Forsook	Forsaken	Forsakes	Forsaking
Freeze	Froze	Frozen	Freezes	Freezing
Frostbite	Frostbit	Frostbitten	Frostbites	Frostbiting
Get	Got	Got/Gotten	Gets	Getting
Give	Gave	Given	Gives	Giving
Go	Went	Gone/Been	Goes	Going
Grind	Ground	Ground	Grinds	Grinding
Grow	Grew	Grown	Grows	Growing
Handwrite	Handwrote	Handwritten	Handwrites	Handwriting
Hang	Hung/Hanged	Hung/Hanged	Hangs	Hanging
Have	Had	Had	Has	Having
Hear	Heard	Heard	Hears	Hearing
Hide	Hid	Hidden	Hides	Hiding
Hit	Hit	Hit	Hits	Hitting
Hold	Held	Held	Holds	Holding
Hurt	Hurt	Hurt	Hurts	Hurting
Inlay	Inlaid	Inlaid	Inlays	Inlaying
Input	Input/Inputted	Input/Inputted	Inputs	Inputting
Interlay	Interlaid	Interlaid	Interlays	Interlaying
Keep	Kept	Kept	Keeps	Keeping
Kneel	Knelt/Kneeled	Knelt/Kneeled	Kneels	Kneeling
Knit	Knit/Knitted	Knit/Knitted	Knits	Knitting
Know	Knew	Known	Knows	Knowing
Lay	Laid	Laid	Lays	laying
Lead	Led	Led	Leads	Leading
Lean	Leant/Leaned	Leant/Leaned	Leans	Leaning
Leap	Leapt/Leaped	Leapt/Leaped	Leaps	Leaping
Learn	Learnt/Learned	Learnt/Learned	Learns	Learning
Leave	Left	Left	Leaves	Leaving
Lend	Lent	Lent	Lends	Lending
Let	Let	Let	Lets	Letting
Lie	Lay	Lain	Lies	Lying
Light	Lit	Lit	Lights	Lighting
Lose	Lost	Lost	Loses	Losing
Make	Made	Made	Makes	Making
Mean	Meant	Meant	Means	Meaning
Meet	Met	Met	Meets	Meeting
Melt	Melted	Molten/Melted	Melts	Melting
Mislead	Misled	Misled	Misleads	Misleading
Mistake	Mistook	Mistaken	Mistakes	Mistaking
Misunderstand	Misunderstood	Misunderstood	Misunderstands	Misunderstanding
Miswed	Miswed/Miswedded	Miswed/Miswedded	Misweds	Miswedding
Mow	Mowed	Mown	Mows	Mowing
Overdraw	Overdrew	Overdrawn	Overdraws	Overdrawing
Overhear	Overheard	Overheard	Overhears	Overhearing
Overtake	Overtook	Overtaken	Overtakes	Overtaking
Pay	Paid	Paid	Pays	Paying
Preset	Preset	Preset	Presets	Presetting
Prove	Proved	Proven/Proved	Proves	Proving
Put	Put	Put	Puts	Putting
Quit	Quit	Quit	Quits	Quitting
Re-prove	Re-proved	Re-proven/Re-proved	Re-proves	Re-proving
Read	Read	Read	Reads	Reading
Rid	Rid/Ridded	Rid/Ridded	Rids	Ridding
Ride	Rode	Ridden	Rides	Riding
Ring	Rang	Rung	Rings	Ringing
Rise	Rose	Risen	Rises	Rising
Rive	Rived	Riven/Rived	Rives	Riving
Run	Ran	Run	Runs	Running
Saw	Sawed	Sawn/Sawed	Saws	Sawing
Say	Said	Said	Says	Saying
See	Saw	Seen	Sees	Seeing
Seek	Sought	Sought	Seeks	Seeking
Sell	Sold	Sold	Sells	Selling
Send	Sent	Sent	Sends	Sending
Set	Set	Set	Sets	Setting
Sew	Sewed	Sewn/Sewed	Sews	Sewing
Shake	Shook	Shaken	Shakes	Shaking
Shave	Shaved	Shaven/Shaved	Shaves	Shaving
Shear	Shore/Sheared	Shorn/Sheared	Shears	Shearing
Shed	Shed	Shed	Sheds	Shedding
Shine	Shone	Shone	Shines	Shining
Shoe	Shod	Shod	Shoes	Shoeing
Shoot	Shot	Shot	Shoots	Shooting
Show	Showed	Shown	Shows	Showing
Shrink	Shrank	Shrunk	Shrinks	Shrinking
Shut	Shut	Shut	Shuts	Shutting
Sing	Sang	Sung	Sings	Singing
Sink	Sank	Sunk	Sinks	Sinking
Sit	Sat	Sat	Sits	Sitting
Slay	Slew	Slain	Slays	Slaying
Sleep	Slept	Slept	Sleeps	Sleeping
Slide	Slid	Slid/Slidden	Slides	Sliding
Sling	Slung	Slung	Slings	Slinging
Slink	Slunk	Slunk	Slinks	Slinking
Slit	Slit	Slit	Slits	Slitting
Smell	Smelt/Smelled	Smelt/Smelled	Smells	Smelling
Sneak	Sneaked/Snuck	Sneaked/Snuck	Sneaks	Sneaking
Soothsay	Soothsaid	Soothsaid	Soothsays	Soothsaying
Sow	Sowed	Sown	Sows	Sowing
Speak	Spoke	Spoken	Speaks	Speaking
Speed	Sped/Speeded	Sped/Speeded	Speeds	Speeding
Spell	Spelt/Spelled	Spelt/Spelled	Spells	Spelling
Spend	Spent	Spent	Spends	Spending
Spill	Spilt/Spilled	Spilt/Spilled	Spills	Spilling
Spin	Span/Spun	Spun	Spins	Spinning
Spit	Spat/Spit	Spat/Spit	Spits	Spitting
Split	Split	Split	Splits	Splitting
Spoil	Spoilt/Spoiled	Spoilt/Spoiled	Spoils	Spoiling
Spread	Spread	Spread	Spreads	Spreading
Spring	Sprang	Sprung	Springs	Springing
Stand	Stood	Stood	Stands	Standing
Steal	Stole	Stolen	Steals	Stealing
Stick	Stuck	Stuck	Sticks	Sticking
Sting	Stung	Stung	Stings	Stinging
Stink	Stank	Stunk	Stinks	Stinking
Stride	Strode/Strided	Stridden	Strides	Striding
Strike	Struck	Struck/Stricken	Strikes	Striking
String	Strung	Strung	Strings	Stringing
Strip	Stript/Stripped	Stript/Stripped	Strips	Stripping
Strive	Strove	Striven	Strives	Striving
Sublet	Sublet	Sublet	Sublets	Subletting
Sunburn	Sunburned/Sunburnt	Sunburned/Sunburnt	Sunburns	Sunburning
Swear	Swore	Sworn	Swears	Swearing
Sweat	Sweat/Sweated	Sweat/Sweated	Sweats	Sweating
Sweep	Swept/Sweeped	Swept/Sweeped	Sweeps	Sweeping
Swell	Swelled	Swollen	Swells	Swelling
Swim	Swam	Swum	Swims	Swimming
Swing	Swung	Swung	Swings	Swinging
Take	Took	Taken	Takes	Taking
Teach	Taught	Taught	Teaches	Teaching
Tear	Tore	Torn	Tears	Tearing
Tell	Told	Told	Tells	Telling
Think	Thought	Thought	Thinks	Thinking
Thrive	Throve/Thrived	Thriven/Thrived	Thrives	Thriving
Throw	Threw	Thrown	Throws	Throwing
Thrust	Thrust	Thrust	Thrusts	Thrusting
Tread	Trod	Trodden	Treads	Treading
Undergo	Underwent	Undergone	Undergoes	Undergoing
Understand	Understood	Understood	Understands	Understanding
Undertake	Undertook	Undertaken	Undertakes	Undertaking
Upset	Upset	Upset	Upsets	Upsetting
Vex	Vext/Vexed	Vext/Vexed	Vexes	Vexing
Wake	Woke	Woken	Wakes	Waking
Wear	Wore	Worn	Wears	Wearing
Weave	Wove	Woven	Weaves	Weaving
Wed	Wed/Wedded	Wed/Wedded	Weds	Wedding
Weep	Wept	Wept	Weeps	Weeping
Wend	Wended/Went	Wended/Went	Wends	Wending
Wet	Wet/Wetted	Wet/Wetted	Wets	Wetting
Win	Won	Won	Wins	Winning
Wind	Wound	Wound	Winds	Winding
Withdraw	Withdrew	Withdrawn	Withdraws	Withdrawing
Withhold	Withheld	Withheld	Withholds	Withholding
Withstand	Withstood	Withstood	Withstands	Withstanding
Wring	Wrung	Wrung	Wrings	Wringing
Write	Wrote	Written	Writes	Writing
Zinc	Zinced/Zincked	Zinced/Zincked	Zincs/Zincks	Zincking