THE FOURTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

THE FOURTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

THE FIFTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

         The masculine nouns which have the ending –us in Nom. et Gen. Sing., and three neuter nouns which have the ending –u in Nom. Sing. and –us in Gen. Sing.belong to the fourth declension.

E.g.:

arcus, us m – arch,

processus, us m – process,

sinus, us m – sinus,

genu, us n –knee,

cornu, us n – horn,

 gelu, us n – ice, cold

The last word can have the form gelum, i and gelus, us m

 

 Exceptions to the rule

         Some fourth declension nouns are feminine. Among them acus, us f (needle), bolus, us f (bole), manus, us f (hand), Quercus, us f (oak) are most frequently used in medical and pharmaceutical terminology.

 

 

CASE ENDINGS OF THE NOUNS BELONGING

TO FIVE DECLENSIONS

 

 

Examples

 

 

 

                   ductus, us m duct                         genu, us n knee

                   Singularis                            Pluralis

Nom. duct-us         gen-u                        duct-us       gen-ua

Gen.   duct-us         gen-us                      duct-uum   gen-uum

Dat.    duct-ui          gen-u                       duct-ibus    gen-ibus

Acc.    duct-us         gen-u                       duct-us       gen-ua

Abl.     duct-u          gen-u                        duct-ibus    gen-ibus 

 Note: The Fourth declensioouns had ending –ubus in Dat. et Abl. Plur. which later changed into –ibus under the influence of the third declension. Only some fourth declensioouns still have the ending –ubus. Arcus, us m (arch), partus, us m (delivery, child-birth, labo(u)r), Quercus, us f (oak) are among them.

 

 

Greek equivalents of the Latin fourth declensioouns

 

Latin word          Greek equivalent and its stem                Meaning

appetitus, us m            orexis        orex-ia                           appetite

auditus, us m               acusis,        acu-, acus-ia                 hearing

fetus, us m                   embryon     embry-                          f(o)etus

gustus, us m                 geusis         geus-                             taste

manus, us m                 cheir           chir-                              hand

motus, us m                 kinesis         kines-                            movement

olfactus, us m               osme           osm-ia                           smell

partus, us m                 tokos           toc-                                delivery

pulsus, us m                 sphygmos    sphygm-                        pulse

sensus, us m                 aesthesis      aesthes-                         sense

textus, us m                  histos           hist-                               texture

visus, us m                    opsis            ops-ia                   acuteness of vision, vision  

cornu, us n                    keras           kerat-                             horn

gelu, us n                     cryos            cry-                   cold, ice

genu, us n                    gony             gon-                  knee

 

Word terminations

 

Vocabulary

аppetītus, us m   appetite

bolus, us f           clay

decubĭtus, us m   bedsore

 

exĭtus, us m                   exit

fructus, us m       fruit

gustus, us m        taste

manus, us f                  hand

Quercus, us f       oak

spirĭtus, us m      spirit

status, us m                   condition

usus, us m           use

cornu, us n          horn

apparātus, us m apparates

arcus, us m          arch

complexus, us m           complex

ductus, us m        duct

defectus, us m     defect

genu, us n  knee

meātus, us m       meatus

plexus, us m        plexus

processus, us m   process

sinus, us m          sinus

sensus, us m        sense

textus, us m         tissue

visus, us m vision

ad usum externum       for external use

ad usum internum       for internal use

pro usu externo for external use  

pro usu interno   for internal use

abortus, us m      abortion

abscessus, us m   abscess

collapsus, us m    collapse

cursus, us m        course

cursus morbi       course of the disease

gradus, us m       stage

infarctus, us m    infarction

vomĭtus, us m     vomiting

 Exercises

Exercise I

Decline the word combinations in singularis et pluralis:

meatus acusticus – acoustic (auditory) meatus

manus sinistra – left hand

genu sinistrum – left knee

sinus frontalis – frontal sinus

 

Exercise II

Translate the terms into English:

Anatomical

organum visus, arcus venosus palmaris, ductus hepaticus sinister, articulations manus, meatus acusticus externus, cornu minus ossis hyoidei

Histological

ductus secretorius; textus connectives elasticus, sinus ductus, recessus infundibuli

 

Exercise III

Translate the terms into Latin:

Anatomical

plantar arch, external cartilaginous acoustic meatus, cartilage of the acoustic meatus, fingers of the right hand, hepatic duct

Histological

respiratory apparatus, sinuses of the ducts, nervous plexus, organs of senses

Determine the gender and declension of the nouns:

arcus, acus, alvus, corpus, nervus, vulnus, meātus, virus, sinus, sulcus, fructus, bolus, periŏdus.

 

Decline the following word combinations:

meātus acustĭcus

pulsus frequens

sinus frontālis

manus sinistra

genu dextrum

 

Translate into English:

orgănum visus

plexus thyroideus impar

arcus venōsus palmāris profundus

ductus hepatĭcus sinister

ductus sublinguāles minōres

arteria genus inferior laterālis

sulcus sinus sigmodei

articulatiōnes manus

processus clinoideus posterior

meātus acustĭcus externus

cornu minus ossis hyoidei

orgăna sensuum

ductus secretorius

textus connectīvus elastĭcus

arcus secundus

plexus vasculāris submucōsus

 

ductus interlobulāris bilĭfer

complexus juxtaglomerulāris

defectus capĭtis

ductus defĕrens

ampulla ductus deferentis

status gemmālis

sinus ductus

recessus infundibŭli

cursus morbi; situs inversus viscěrum; abortus artificiālis; exĭtus letālis; collapsus haemorrhagĭcus; partus praematūrus; infarctus myocardii; prolapsus recti; statuspraesens aegrōti; insultus ischaemĭcus; abscessus gangraenōsus; vomĭtus felliōsus; habĭtus aegrōti

1) Sarcoidōsis pulmōnum: phasis actīva, cursus progressīvus. Insufficientia respiratoria gradus II.

2) Vitium cordis congenĭtum;  ductus arterialis apertus; hypervolaemia circŭli sanguĭnis minōris, phasis compensatiōnis.

3)     Complexus tuberculōsus primarius,  phasis infiltratiōnis.

4)     Accessus glaucomătis posttraumatĭci secundarii ocŭli dextri acūtus.

Spirĭtus aethylĭcus rectificātus; solutio Jodi ad usum internum; sirŭpus ex fructĭbus Rosae; Spirĭtus Acĭdi formicĭci; Spirĭtus camphorātus; cortex Quercus; fructus Ribis nigri.

 

Latin sayings and aphorisms

 

 

THE FIFTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS

     The nouns which have the ending –es in Nom. Sing. and the ending –ei in Gen. Sing. belong to the fifth declension, e.g.:

facies, ei f – surface, face; caries, ei f – caries.

 NB! The noun dies, ei m (day) is masculine. But when certain period of time is meant then it is feminine, e.g.:

 Dies criticus morbi – the critical day of disease.

 But: dies constituta – the fixed day.

 Nulla dies –not even a day.

 If to compare with other declensions the fifth declensioouns are very few. In the process of the Latin language development a lot of them have become the first declensioouns. E.g. in ancient writings one can find the word materies, ei f (substance), which later changed into material, ae f. There are lots of such examples.

 Not all fifth declensioouns can be plural. The following noun have a plural form.

 dies, ei m(f) day, facies, ei f face, surface, res, rei f thing, cause, species, ei f species, tea.

 Onle the plural form of the noun species, ei f is used in medical terminology, e.g.:

 Species cardiacae – cardiac species (tea)

        

          Singularis             Pluralis

Nom.  species                  species

Gen.   speciei                   specierum

Dat.    speciei                   speciebus

Acc.    speciem                 species

Abl.     specie                    speciebus

 

Note: Species is often called tea (thea) if the character of its action is meant.

 

CASE ENDINGS OF THE NOUNS BELONGING

TO FIVE DECLENSIONS

 

 

 

Vocabulary

 caries, ēi f                           caries

dies, ēi f,m                    day

facies, ēi f                      face

facies Hippocratĭca      Hippocratic face

rabies, ēi f                     rabies

res, rei f                        thing

scabies, ēi f                   scabies

series, ēi f                      series

species, ēi f                    species

superficies, ēi f              surface

 

Greek equivalents of the Latin fifth declensioouns

 

 

Exercise I

Translate the terms into English:

Anatomical

facies articularis, facies temporalis, facies anterior, facies Hippocratica

 

Histological

facies externa, facies superior, superficies plasmica

 

Exercise II

Translate the terms into Latin:

Anatomical

posterior surface, anterior surface of the maxilla, respiratory surface, nasal surface.

Pharmaceutical

Aromatic species; diuretic species; mix to get species.

 

Translate into English:

1. Res rudis plantārum. 2. Sumĭte medicamentum per diem. 3. Da speciērum antiasthmaticārum 100,0. 4. Species ex herbis, e cortĭce, foliis, fructĭbus, radicĭbus,rhizomătis variārum plantārum parantur. 5. Species sunt diuretĭcae, laxantes, amārae, pectorāles, cholagōgae et cetĕrae. 6. Infūsum herbae Absinthii ut amarities amedĭcis praescribĭtur. 7. Praepăra mixtūram pro die. 8. Species pectorāles ut thea coquuntur. 9. Serva species medicātas in loco frigĭdo. 10. Contra rabiem serum antirabĭcum habēmus. 11. Sacchărum amaritiem remedii corrĭgit.

Translate the prescriptions:

1. Recipe:   Cortĭcіs Frangŭlae 3,0

                   Foliōrum Urtīcae 2,0

                   Rhizomătis cum radicĭbus Valeriānae 1,5

                   Olei Foenicŭli guttas V

                   Misce, fiant species.

                   Signa: По 1 столовій ложці тричі на день.

2. Recipe:   Speciērum pectorālium 50,0

Da. Signa:

Samples of species

species aromatĭcae

species antiasthmatĭcae

species carminatīvae

species cholagōgae

species diaphoretĭcae

species diuretĭcae

species laxantes

species pectorāles

species sedatīvae

species stomachĭcae

 

Translate into English

facies lunāta

facies anterior partis petrōsae

facies temporālis

facies articulāris superior

facies anterolaterālis

facies plasmĭca (cytoplasmatis)

superficies plasmĭca

superficies extraplasmĭca

facies extraplasmĭca

facies externa (unguis)

mixtura pro die;

species e foliis, e radicĭbus, e florĭbus et e cortĭce plantārum;

species nervīnae;

speciērum cholagogārum 50,0;

species laxantes.

facies Hippocratĭca;

caries dentium;

 dies critĭcus;

caries sicca;

combustio faciēi;

 hemeralopia congenĭta;

diprosŏpus;

prosopalgia;

 lyssophobia;

rabies paralytĭca;

aprosopia;

caries dentis secundaria;

 hemiprosopoplegia.

Translate into English

oleum Terebinthĭnae, infusum foliōrum Cerăsi; unguentum Hydrargўri cinereum; in capsŭlis gelatinōsis duris; massae pilulārum quantum satis; in tabulettis obductis; extractum Viburni fluĭdum; Olei Menthae piperītae guttas III; emplastrum adhaesīvum bactericīdum; acĭdum hydrochlorĭcum dilūtum; extractum Aloёs fluĭdum; suppositoria cum extracto Opii; chole medicāta consrvāta; in ampullis.

 

Samples of prescriptions

 

Rp.:   Foliōrum Melissae 15,0

         Foliōrum Rosmarīni

         Foliōrum Chamomillae

Foliōrum Lavandŭlae ana 4,6

Foliōrum Lamii albi 2,0

Fructuum Carvi

Fructuum Foenicŭli ana 4,6

Herbae Callūnae

Herbae Passiflōrae

Radīcis Valeriānae

Strobulōrum Lupŭli ana 15,0

Misce, fiant species (nervīnae)

Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:   Speciērum pectorālium 100,0

Da. Signa:

 Rp.:       Tabulettas Ephedrīni hydrochlorĭdi 0,025 numĕro 10.

           Da. Signa:

 Rp.:    Tabulettas Dimecolīni 0,025 obductas numĕro 50

              Da. Signa

 Rp.:    Amidopyrīni 0,25

           Coffeīni–natrii benzoātis 0,1

              Da tales doses numĕro 10 in tabulettis

  Signa:

 

 Rp.:    Ephedrīni hydrochlorĭdi

           Dimedrōli ana 0,025

           Misce, fiat pulvis

           Dentur tales doses numĕro 10

           Signa:

 

 Rp.:    Pulvĕris Xeroformii subtilissĭmi 10,0

           Misce. Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:     Ferri reducti 1,0

           Dentur tales doses numĕro 15 in capsŭlis gelatinōsis

           Signa:

 

Rp.:     Cortĭcis Frangŭlae

           Foliōrum Menthae piperītae

           Rhizomătis cum radicĭbus Valeriānae ana 15,0

           misce, fiant species

           Detur in saccŭlo chartaceo

           Signētur:

 

 Rp.:    Speciērum antiasthmaticārum 100,0

           Da. Signa.

 

 Rp.:    Granulōrum Orāzi 100,0

           Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:     Granulōrum Aethazōli-natrii pro infantĭbus 60,0

           Da. Signa:

 

.Rp.:    Dragee Aminazīni 0,025 numĕro 12

           Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:        Membranŭlas ophthalmĭcas cum Neomycīni sulfate 0,0012 numĕro 30.

           Da. Signa:

Rp.:     Dragee “Hendevītum” numĕro 50

           Da. Signa:

Rp.:     Tabulettas Furadonīni 0,03 enterosolubĭles pro infantĭbus numĕro 20.

           Da. Sіgna:

Rp.:   Solutiōnis Proserīni 0,05 % – 1 ml

                            Dentur tales doses numĕro 6 in ampullis

                   Signa:

Rp.:   Extracti Polygōni hydropipĕris fluĭdi

                   Extracti Viburni fluĭdi ana 20 ml

Misce. Da.

Signa:

Rp.:   Infūsi flōrum Arnĭcae ex 10,0 – 200 ml

Da.

Signa:

Rp.:   Solutiōnis Pilocarpīni hydrochlorĭdi 0,1

Solutiōnis Adrenalīni hydrochlorĭdi 0,1 % 10 ml

Misce. Da. Signa:.

 

Rp.:   Menthōli 0,1

Olei Vaselīni 10 ml

Misce. Da.

Signa:.

Rp.:   Olei Ricĭni 20,0

Xeroformii 1,2

Vinylīni 1,0

Misce, fiat linimentum

Da. Signa:

Rp.:   Succi Aloës 100 ml

Da.

Signa:

Rp.:   Unguenti Tetracyclīni ophthalmĭci 10,0

                   Da.

                   Sіgna.

 

Rp.:   Natrii fluorātis

Boli albae ana 1,0

Glycerīni 1,2

Misce, fiat pasta

Detur.

Signētur:

Rp.:   Chinosōli

Acĭdi borĭci ana 0,2

Butyri Cacao quantum satis, ut fiat globŭlus vaginālis.

Dentur tales doses numĕro 6.

Signa:.

Rp.:   Extracti Belladonnae 0,015

Novocaīni 0,2

Xeroformii 0,1

Ichthyōli 0,2

Butyri Cacao quantum satis, ut fiat suppositorium rectāle

Da tales doses numĕro 20

Signa:

Rp.:   Extracti Bursae pastōris sicci

    Extracti Secālis cornūti ana 3,0

    Pulvĕris radīcis Glycyrrhīzae quantum satis, ut fiant pilŭlae numĕro 30.

Da.

Signa:

Recipe:           Choles medicātae conservātae 250,0

                       Da. Signa.

Recipe: Tabulettas “Sedalgin” numěro 20

                       Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Unguenti Furacillīni 1 % – 25,0

Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Infūsi foliōrum BetŭTHE FOURTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

THE FIFTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

         The masculine nouns which have the ending –us in Nom. et Gen. Sing., and three neuter nouns which have the ending –u in Nom. Sing. and –us in Gen. Sing.belong to the fourth declension.

E.g.:

arcus, us m – arch,

processus, us m – process,

sinus, us m – sinus,

genu, us n –knee,

cornu, us n – horn,

 gelu, us n – ice, cold

The last word can have the form gelum, i and gelus, us m

 

 Exceptions to the rule

         Some fourth declension nouns are feminine. Among them acus, us f (needle), bolus, us f (bole), manus, us f (hand), Quercus, us f (oak) are most frequently used in medical and pharmaceutical terminology.

 

 

CASE ENDINGS OF THE NOUNS BELONGING

TO FIVE DECLENSIONS

 

 

Examples

 

 

 

                   ductus, us m duct                         genu, us n knee

                   Singularis                            Pluralis

Nom. duct-us         gen-u                        duct-us       gen-ua

Gen.   duct-us         gen-us                      duct-uum   gen-uum

Dat.    duct-ui          gen-u                       duct-ibus    gen-ibus

Acc.    duct-us         gen-u                       duct-us       gen-ua

Abl.     duct-u          gen-u                        duct-ibus    gen-ibus 

 Note: The Fourth declensioouns had ending –ubus in Dat. et Abl. Plur. which later changed into –ibus under the influence of the third declension. Only some fourth declensioouns still have the ending –ubus. Arcus, us m (arch), partus, us m (delivery, child-birth, labo(u)r), Quercus, us f (oak) are among them.

 

 

Greek equivalents of the Latin fourth declensioouns

 

Latin word          Greek equivalent and its stem                Meaning

appetitus, us m            orexis        orex-ia                           appetite

auditus, us m               acusis,        acu-, acus-ia                 hearing

fetus, us m                   embryon     embry-                          f(o)etus

gustus, us m                 geusis         geus-                             taste

manus, us m                 cheir           chir-                              hand

motus, us m                 kinesis         kines-                            movement

olfactus, us m               osme           osm-ia                           smell

partus, us m                 tokos           toc-                                delivery

pulsus, us m                 sphygmos    sphygm-                        pulse

sensus, us m                 aesthesis      aesthes-                         sense

textus, us m                  histos           hist-                               texture

visus, us m                    opsis            ops-ia                   acuteness of vision, vision  

cornu, us n                    keras           kerat-                             horn

gelu, us n                     cryos            cry-                   cold, ice

genu, us n                    gony             gon-                  knee

 

Word terminations

 

Vocabulary

аppetītus, us m   appetite

bolus, us f           clay

decubĭtus, us m   bedsore

 

exĭtus, us m                   exit

fructus, us m       fruit

gustus, us m        taste

manus, us f                  hand

Quercus, us f       oak

spirĭtus, us m      spirit

status, us m                   condition

usus, us m           use

cornu, us n          horn

apparātus, us m apparates

arcus, us m          arch

complexus, us m           complex

ductus, us m        duct

defectus, us m     defect

genu, us n  knee

meātus, us m       meatus

plexus, us m        plexus

processus, us m   process

sinus, us m          sinus

sensus, us m        sense

textus, us m         tissue

visus, us m vision

ad usum externum       for external use

ad usum internum       for internal use

pro usu externo for external use  

pro usu interno   for internal use

abortus, us m      abortion

abscessus, us m   abscess

collapsus, us m    collapse

cursus, us m        course

cursus morbi       course of the disease

gradus, us m       stage

infarctus, us m    infarction

vomĭtus, us m     vomiting

 Exercises

Exercise I

Decline the word combinations in singularis et pluralis:

meatus acusticus – acoustic (auditory) meatus

manus sinistra – left hand

genu sinistrum – left knee

sinus frontalis – frontal sinus

 

Exercise II

Translate the terms into English:

Anatomical

organum visus, arcus venosus palmaris, ductus hepaticus sinister, articulations manus, meatus acusticus externus, cornu minus ossis hyoidei

Histological

ductus secretorius; textus connectives elasticus, sinus ductus, recessus infundibuli

 

Exercise III

Translate the terms into Latin:

Anatomical

plantar arch, external cartilaginous acoustic meatus, cartilage of the acoustic meatus, fingers of the right hand, hepatic duct

Histological

respiratory apparatus, sinuses of the ducts, nervous plexus, organs of senses

Determine the gender and declension of the nouns:

arcus, acus, alvus, corpus, nervus, vulnus, meātus, virus, sinus, sulcus, fructus, bolus, periŏdus.

 

Decline the following word combinations:

meātus acustĭcus

pulsus frequens

sinus frontālis

manus sinistra

genu dextrum

 

Translate into English:

orgănum visus

plexus thyroideus impar

arcus venōsus palmāris profundus

ductus hepatĭcus sinister

ductus sublinguāles minōres

arteria genus inferior laterālis

sulcus sinus sigmodei

articulatiōnes manus

processus clinoideus posterior

meātus acustĭcus externus

cornu minus ossis hyoidei

orgăna sensuum

ductus secretorius

textus connectīvus elastĭcus

arcus secundus

plexus vasculāris submucōsus

 

ductus interlobulāris bilĭfer

complexus juxtaglomerulāris

defectus capĭtis

ductus defĕrens

ampulla ductus deferentis

status gemmālis

sinus ductus

recessus infundibŭli

cursus morbi; situs inversus viscěrum; abortus artificiālis; exĭtus letālis; collapsus haemorrhagĭcus; partus praematūrus; infarctus myocardii; prolapsus recti; statuspraesens aegrōti; insultus ischaemĭcus; abscessus gangraenōsus; vomĭtus felliōsus; habĭtus aegrōti

1) Sarcoidōsis pulmōnum: phasis actīva, cursus progressīvus. Insufficientia respiratoria gradus II.

2) Vitium cordis congenĭtum;  ductus arterialis apertus; hypervolaemia circŭli sanguĭnis minōris, phasis compensatiōnis.

3)     Complexus tuberculōsus primarius,  phasis infiltratiōnis.

4)     Accessus glaucomătis posttraumatĭci secundarii ocŭli dextri acūtus.

Spirĭtus aethylĭcus rectificātus; solutio Jodi ad usum internum; sirŭpus ex fructĭbus Rosae; Spirĭtus Acĭdi formicĭci; Spirĭtus camphorātus; cortex Quercus; fructus Ribis nigri.

 

Latin sayings and aphorisms

 

 

THE FIFTH DECLENSION OF NOUNS

     The nouns which have the ending –es in Nom. Sing. and the ending –ei in Gen. Sing. belong to the fifth declension, e.g.:

facies, ei f – surface, face; caries, ei f – caries.

 NB! The noun dies, ei m (day) is masculine. But when certain period of time is meant then it is feminine, e.g.:

 Dies criticus morbi – the critical day of disease.

 But: dies constituta – the fixed day.

 Nulla dies –not even a day.

 If to compare with other declensions the fifth declensioouns are very few. In the process of the Latin language development a lot of them have become the first declensioouns. E.g. in ancient writings one can find the word materies, ei f (substance), which later changed into material, ae f. There are lots of such examples.

 Not all fifth declensioouns can be plural. The following noun have a plural form.

 dies, ei m(f) day, facies, ei f face, surface, res, rei f thing, cause, species, ei f species, tea.

 Onle the plural form of the noun species, ei f is used in medical terminology, e.g.:

 Species cardiacae – cardiac species (tea)

        

          Singularis             Pluralis

Nom.  species                  species

Gen.   speciei                   specierum

Dat.    speciei                   speciebus

Acc.    speciem                 species

Abl.     specie                    speciebus

 

Note: Species is often called tea (thea) if the character of its action is meant.

 

CASE ENDINGS OF THE NOUNS BELONGING

TO FIVE DECLENSIONS

 

 

 

Vocabulary

 caries, ēi f                           caries

dies, ēi f,m                    day

facies, ēi f                      face

facies Hippocratĭca      Hippocratic face

rabies, ēi f                     rabies

res, rei f                        thing

scabies, ēi f                   scabies

series, ēi f                      series

species, ēi f                    species

superficies, ēi f              surface

 

Greek equivalents of the Latin fifth declensioouns

 

 

Exercise I

Translate the terms into English:

Anatomical

facies articularis, facies temporalis, facies anterior, facies Hippocratica

 

Histological

facies externa, facies superior, superficies plasmica

 

Exercise II

Translate the terms into Latin:

Anatomical

posterior surface, anterior surface of the maxilla, respiratory surface, nasal surface.

Pharmaceutical

Aromatic species; diuretic species; mix to get species.

 

Translate into English:

1. Res rudis plantārum. 2. Sumĭte medicamentum per diem. 3. Da speciērum antiasthmaticārum 100,0. 4. Species ex herbis, e cortĭce, foliis, fructĭbus, radicĭbus,rhizomătis variārum plantārum parantur. 5. Species sunt diuretĭcae, laxantes, amārae, pectorāles, cholagōgae et cetĕrae. 6. Infūsum herbae Absinthii ut amarities amedĭcis praescribĭtur. 7. Praepăra mixtūram pro die. 8. Species pectorāles ut thea coquuntur. 9. Serva species medicātas in loco frigĭdo. 10. Contra rabiem serum antirabĭcum habēmus. 11. Sacchărum amaritiem remedii corrĭgit.

Translate the prescriptions:

1. Recipe:   Cortĭcіs Frangŭlae 3,0

                   Foliōrum Urtīcae 2,0

                   Rhizomătis cum radicĭbus Valeriānae 1,5

                   Olei Foenicŭli guttas V

                   Misce, fiant species.

                   Signa: По 1 столовій ложці тричі на день.

2. Recipe:   Speciērum pectorālium 50,0

Da. Signa:

Samples of species

species aromatĭcae

species antiasthmatĭcae

species carminatīvae

species cholagōgae

species diaphoretĭcae

species diuretĭcae

species laxantes

species pectorāles

species sedatīvae

species stomachĭcae

 

Translate into English

facies lunāta

facies anterior partis petrōsae

facies temporālis

facies articulāris superior

facies anterolaterālis

facies plasmĭca (cytoplasmatis)

superficies plasmĭca

superficies extraplasmĭca

facies extraplasmĭca

facies externa (unguis)

mixtura pro die;

species e foliis, e radicĭbus, e florĭbus et e cortĭce plantārum;

species nervīnae;

speciērum cholagogārum 50,0;

species laxantes.

facies Hippocratĭca;

caries dentium;

 dies critĭcus;

caries sicca;

combustio faciēi;

 hemeralopia congenĭta;

diprosŏpus;

prosopalgia;

 lyssophobia;

rabies paralytĭca;

aprosopia;

caries dentis secundaria;

 hemiprosopoplegia.

Translate into English

oleum Terebinthĭnae, infusum foliōrum Cerăsi; unguentum Hydrargўri cinereum; in capsŭlis gelatinōsis duris; massae pilulārum quantum satis; in tabulettis obductis; extractum Viburni fluĭdum; Olei Menthae piperītae guttas III; emplastrum adhaesīvum bactericīdum; acĭdum hydrochlorĭcum dilūtum; extractum Aloёs fluĭdum; suppositoria cum extracto Opii; chole medicāta consrvāta; in ampullis.

 

Samples of prescriptions

 

Rp.:   Foliōrum Melissae 15,0

         Foliōrum Rosmarīni

         Foliōrum Chamomillae

Foliōrum Lavandŭlae ana 4,6

Foliōrum Lamii albi 2,0

Fructuum Carvi

Fructuum Foenicŭli ana 4,6

Herbae Callūnae

Herbae Passiflōrae

Radīcis Valeriānae

Strobulōrum Lupŭli ana 15,0

Misce, fiant species (nervīnae)

Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:   Speciērum pectorālium 100,0

Da. Signa:

 Rp.:       Tabulettas Ephedrīni hydrochlorĭdi 0,025 numĕro 10.

           Da. Signa:

 Rp.:    Tabulettas Dimecolīni 0,025 obductas numĕro 50

              Da. Signa

 Rp.:    Amidopyrīni 0,25

           Coffeīni–natrii benzoātis 0,1

              Da tales doses numĕro 10 in tabulettis

  Signa:

 

 Rp.:    Ephedrīni hydrochlorĭdi

           Dimedrōli ana 0,025

           Misce, fiat pulvis

           Dentur tales doses numĕro 10

           Signa:

 

 Rp.:    Pulvĕris Xeroformii subtilissĭmi 10,0

           Misce. Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:     Ferri reducti 1,0

           Dentur tales doses numĕro 15 in capsŭlis gelatinōsis

           Signa:

 

Rp.:     Cortĭcis Frangŭlae

           Foliōrum Menthae piperītae

           Rhizomătis cum radicĭbus Valeriānae ana 15,0

           misce, fiant species

           Detur in saccŭlo chartaceo

           Signētur:

 

 Rp.:    Speciērum antiasthmaticārum 100,0

           Da. Signa.

 

 Rp.:    Granulōrum Orāzi 100,0

           Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:     Granulōrum Aethazōli-natrii pro infantĭbus 60,0

           Da. Signa:

 

.Rp.:    Dragee Aminazīni 0,025 numĕro 12

           Da. Signa:

 

Rp.:        Membranŭlas ophthalmĭcas cum Neomycīni sulfate 0,0012 numĕro 30.

           Da. Signa:

Rp.:     Dragee “Hendevītum” numĕro 50

           Da. Signa:

Rp.:     Tabulettas Furadonīni 0,03 enterosolubĭles pro infantĭbus numĕro 20.

           Da. Sіgna:

Rp.:   Solutiōnis Proserīni 0,05 % – 1 ml

                            Dentur tales doses numĕro 6 in ampullis

                   Signa:

Rp.:   Extracti Polygōni hydropipĕris fluĭdi

                   Extracti Viburni fluĭdi ana 20 ml

Misce. Da.

Signa:

Rp.:   Infūsi flōrum Arnĭcae ex 10,0 – 200 ml

Da.

Signa:

Rp.:   Solutiōnis Pilocarpīni hydrochlorĭdi 0,1

Solutiōnis Adrenalīni hydrochlorĭdi 0,1 % 10 ml

Misce. Da. Signa:.

 

Rp.:   Menthōli 0,1

Olei Vaselīni 10 ml

Misce. Da.

Signa:.

Rp.:   Olei Ricĭni 20,0

Xeroformii 1,2

Vinylīni 1,0

Misce, fiat linimentum

Da. Signa:

Rp.:   Succi Aloës 100 ml

Da.

Signa:

Rp.:   Unguenti Tetracyclīni ophthalmĭci 10,0

                   Da.

                   Sіgna.

 

Rp.:   Natrii fluorātis

Boli albae ana 1,0

Glycerīni 1,2

Misce, fiat pasta

Detur.

Signētur:

Rp.:   Chinosōli

Acĭdi borĭci ana 0,2

Butyri Cacao quantum satis, ut fiat globŭlus vaginālis.

Dentur tales doses numĕro 6.

Signa:.

Rp.:   Extracti Belladonnae 0,015

Novocaīni 0,2

Xeroformii 0,1

Ichthyōli 0,2

Butyri Cacao quantum satis, ut fiat suppositorium rectāle

Da tales doses numĕro 20

Signa:

Rp.:   Extracti Bursae pastōris sicci

    Extracti Secālis cornūti ana 3,0

    Pulvĕris radīcis Glycyrrhīzae quantum satis, ut fiant pilŭlae numĕro 30.

Da.

Signa:

Recipe:           Choles medicātae conservātae 250,0

                       Da. Signa.

Recipe: Tabulettas “Sedalgin” numěro 20

                       Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Unguenti Furacillīni 1 % – 25,0

Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Infūsi foliōrum Betŭlae 15,0

                       et foliōrum Sambūci 10,0: 250,0

                       Olei Menthae piparītae guttas II

                       Misce. Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Acĭdi hydrochlorĭci dilūti 5 ml

                       Pepsīni 2 ml

                       Aquae destillātae 180 ml

                       Sirŭpi Cerăsi 200 ml

                       Misce. Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Extracti Frangŭlae fluĭdi 0,15

                       Extracti Viburni fluĭdi

                       Herbae Thymi ana 20 ml

                       Misce. Da. Signa.

Recipe:           Mycosolōni 30,0

Da. Signa.

 

Abbreviations used in prescriptions

 

Latin sayings and aphorisms

Carpe diem.	– Catch a day.
Dies diem docet.	– A day teaches another day.
Est modus in rebus.	– There should be some limit in things. (You should always know where to stop)
Nulla dies sine linea.	– Not even a day without useful work.
Hodie diem perdidi.	I have wasted the day today (if I have not done anything useful)

 

WATCH VIDEO ON THE TOPIC:

1.     The Fourth Declension of Nouns – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=33n1qYq9Liw&list=PL31BB9444AD808715

2.     The Fifth Declension of Nouns – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86sJuoghuX0&list=PL31BB9444AD808715

 

First declension Greek nouns

The first declension also includes three types of Greek loanwords, derived from Ancient Greek’s Alpha Declension. They are declined irregularly in the singular, but are sometimes treated as if they were native Latiouns, e.g. nominative athlēta instead of the original athlētēs. Interestingly, archaic (Homeric) first declension Greek nouns and adjectives had been formed in exactly the same way as in Latin: nephelēgeréta Zeus (Zeus the cloud-gatherer) had in classical Greek become nephelēgerétēs.

For full paradigm tables and more detailed information, see the Wiktionary appendix First declension.

Second declension (o)

The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like equus, equī (“horse”) and puer, puerī (“boy’) and neuter nouns like castellum, castellī(“fort”). There are several small groups of feminine exceptions, including names of gemstones, plants, trees, and some towns and cities.

In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the ending -us, although some end in -er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending -um. However, every second-declensiooun has the ending -ī attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o.

Masculine:

Neuter:

Nouns ending in -ius and -ium have a genitive singular in -ī in earlier Latin, which was regularized to -iī in the later language. Masculine nouns in -ius have a vocative singular in -ī at all stages. These forms in -ī are stressed on the same syllable as the nominative singular, sometimes in violation of the usual Latin stress rule. For example, the genitive and vocative singular Vergilī (from Vergilius) is pronounced [werˈɡiliː], with stress on the penult, even though it is short.^[2]

There is no contraction of -iī(s) in plural forms.

Second declension R nouns

Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an –er or an –ir in the nominative singular. For such nouns, the genitive singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, socer, –erī keeps its E. However, the noun magister, –trī (“teacher”) drops its E in the genitive singular. Nouns with –ir in the nominative singular never drop the I.

The declension of second declension R nouns is identical to that of the regular second declension, with the exception of the vocative singular, which is identical to the nominative rather than ending in an -e.

For declension tables of second declensioouns, see the corresponding Wiktionary appendix.

Second declension Greek nouns

The second declension contains two types of masculine Greek nouns and one form of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are irregular only in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from the Omicron Declension.

Some Greek nouns may also be declined as normal Latiouns. For example, theātron can appear as theātrum.

Peculiarities

In the older language, nouns ending with –vus, –quus and –vum take o rather than u in the nominative and accusative singular.

The plural of deus (god, deity) is irregular.

The vocative singular of Deus is not attested in Classical Latin. In Ecclesiastical Latin the vocative is Deus.

In poetry, -um may be substituted for -ōrum as the genitive plural ending.

Third declension (i)

The third declension is the largest group of nouns. The nominative singular of these nouns may end in –a,–e, –ī, –ō, –y, –c, –l, –n, –r, –s, –t, or –x. This group of nouns includes masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns. Examples are flumen, fluminis neut. (“river”), flos, floris masc. (“flower”), and pax, pacis fem. (“peace”). Each noun has the ending -is as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, many masculine nouns end in an –or (amor). Many feminine nouns end in an –īx (phoenīx), and many neuter nouns end in an –us (onus).

¹ The nominative singular is formed in one of four ways: with -s, with no ending, or by one of these two with a different stem from the oblique cases. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular.

² The nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical. It should not be assumed that –en is always the appropriate ending, as it might appear above.

Third declension i-stem nouns

The third declension also has a set of nouns that are declined differently. They are called i-stems. I-stems are broken into two subcategories: pure and mixed. Pure I-stems are indicated by the parisyllabic rule or special neuter endings. Mixed I-stems are indicated by the double consonant rule.

·        Masculine & Feminine

·         Parisyllabic Rule: Some masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive as they do in the nominative. For example: amnis, –is. The nominative ends in -is.

·         Double-Consonant Rule: The rest of the masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have two consonants before the –is in the genitive singular.For example:pars, partis

·        Neuter

·         Special Neuter Ending: Neuter third declension i-stems have no rule. However, all of them end in –al, –ar or –e. For example: animal, –ālis. This can be remembered with the help of the mnemonic involving a pirate named Al: “Al, ar’ e’ going pirating today?”

Pure I-stems may exhibit peculiar endings in both singular and plural. Mixed I-stems employ normal (consonant) 3rd declension endings in the singular but I-Stem endings in the plural. Note the alternative I-stem endings indicated in parentheses.

¹ The nominative singular is formed in one of four ways: with -s, with no ending, or by one of these two with a different stem from the oblique cases. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular.

The rules for determining I-stems from non-I-stems and “mixed” I-stems should be thought of more as “guidelines” than “rules”: even among the Romans themselves, the categorization of a 3rd declension word as an I-stem or non-I-stem was quite fluid. The result is that many words that should be I-stems according to the parisyllabic and consonant stem rules actually are not, such as canis or iuvenis. By the parisyllabic rule, “canis” should be a masculine I-stem and thus differ from the non-I-stems by having an extra -i- in the plural genitive form: “canium”. In reality, the plural genitive of “canis” is “canum”, the form of a non-I-stem. This fluidity even in Roman times results in much more uncertainty in Medieval Latin, as scholars were trying to imitate what was fluid to begin with.

Peculiarities

In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.

Fourth declension (u)

The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words such as fluctus, fluctūs (masc.) (“a wave”)’ and portus, portūs (masc.)(“a port”) with a few feminine exceptions, including manus, manūs (fem.) (“hand”). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns including genu, genūs (neut.)(“knee”). Each noun has the ending -ūsas a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u.

In the dative and ablative plural, –ibus is sometimes replaced with –ubus. This is so for only a few nouns, such as artus, “the limbs”.

The declension of domus is irregular:

Fifth declension (e)

The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like ‘affair, matter, thing’ (rēs, reī fem.) and ‘day’ (diēs, diēī usually masculine, except ootable days when it is feminine). Each noun has either the ending -ēī or –eī as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form

Note that nouns ending in iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ēs have short eī in these cases.

Pronouns

Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:

·        the nominatives are often irregular

·        the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or -ī.

·        the dative singular ends in -ī: rather than -ae or -ō.

These differences identify the “pronominal” declension, and a few adjectives follow this pattern. The vocative, where not shown, is the same as the nominative.

Personal pronouns

The first and second persons are irregular. They may be only masculine or feminine.

¹These pronouns are declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions to agree in number and case with the thing possessed.

Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. However, with personal pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), cum is added on to the end of the ablative form. For example: mēcum, nōbīscum, tēcum, vōbīscum and quōcum (sometimes quīcum).

The third person reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject whether it be singular or plural.

¹This pronoun is declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions to agree iumber and case with the thing possessed.

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. They are distinct from the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives

hic, haec, hoc this, this one

ille, illa, illud that, that one

iste, ista, istud that of yours

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Nominative

hic

hī

haec

hae

hoc

haec

ille

illī

illa

Illae

illud

illa

iste

istī

ista

istae

istud

ista

Vocative

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Accusative

hunc

hōs

hanc

hās

hoc

haec

illum

illōs

illam

Illās

illud

illa

istum

istōs

istam

istās

istud

ista

Genitive

huius

hōrum

huius

hārum

Huius

hōrum

illīus

illōrum

illīus

illārum

illīus

illōrum

istīus

istōrum

istīus

istārum

istīus

istōrum

Dative

huic

hīs

huic

hīs

Huic

hīs

illī

illīs

illī

Illīs

illī

illīs

istī

istīs

istī

istīs

istī

istīs

Ablative

hōc

hīs

hāc

hīs

hōc

hīs

illō

illīs

illā

Illīs

illō

illīs

istō

istīs

istā

istīs

istō

istīs

Intensive pronouns

Relative pronouns

Adjectives

First and second declension adjectives

First and second declension are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in –us (although some end in -er, see below), the feminine form ends in –a, and the neuter form ends in –um. Therefore, adjectives are given like altus, alta, altum.

First and second declension –r adjectives

Some first and second declension adjectives’ masculine form end in an –er. As with second declensioouns –r nouns, some adjectives retain the e throughout inflection, and some omit it. Sacer, sacra, sacrum omits its e while miser, misera, miserum keeps it.

 

First and second –īus genitive adjectives

Nine first and second declension adjectives are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders. They can be remembered by using the mnemonic acronym UNUS NAUTA. They are:

ūllus, –a, –um; any
nūllus, –a, –um; no, none (of any)
uter, –tra, –trum; which (of two)
sōlus, –a, –um; sole, alone
neuter, –tra, –trum; neither (of two)
alius, –a, –ud; (gen. sing. alīus; another)
ūnus, –a, –um; one
tōtus, –a, –um; whole
alter, –era, –erum; the other (of two)

Third declension adjectives

Third declension adjectives are normally declined like third declension i-stem nouns, except for the fact they always have a –ī rather than an -e in the ablative singular (unlike i-stem nouns, in which only neuters have –ī). Some adjectives, however, like the one-ending vetus, veteris (old, aged), have an -e in the ablative singular (all genders), a -um in the genitive plural (all genders), and an -a in the nominative and accusative plural (neuter only).

Third declension adjectives with one ending

These have a single nominative ending for all genders, although as usual the endings for the other cases vary. As with nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of inflection.

¹—may end in –īs
²—may end in –e

Third declension adjectives with two endings

Third declension adjectives that have two endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is –is, and the ending for the neuter is –e. Because the sexed form ends in an –is, we find the adjective genitive singular.

¹—may end in –īs

Third declension adjectives with three endings

Third declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third and second declension –r nouns, the masculine ends in an –er. The feminine ends in an –ris, and the neuter ends in an –re. With that information, we come upon the genitive singular needed for inflection, the feminine form.

¹—may end in –īs

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives

As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third declension adjectives with one or two endings, the comparative is formed by adding an –ior for the masculine and feminine, and an –ius for the neuter to the base. The genitive for both are formed by adding an –iōris. Therefore, they are declined like the third declension. However, they are not declined as i-stems are. Superlatives formed by adding an –issimus, –a, –um to the base. Now, we find that superlatives are declined like first and second declension adjectives.

Comparatives and superlatives of –er adjectives

Adjectives (in the third and first and second declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in –er have different forms. If the feminine and neuter forms drop the E, use that for the comparative form. The superlative is formed by adding a –rimus onto the masculine form.

Comparatives and superlatives of –lis adjectives

Some third declension adjectives with two endings in –lis in the sexed nominative singular have irregular superlative forms. The following are the only adjectives that have this unique form.

Irregular comparatives and superlatives

As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparatives and superlatives.

·        1: noun used with genitive to express more of something

·        2: often replaced by the regular form ‘maturissimus, –a, –um’

·        3: indeclinable

Declension of īdem

The adjective īdem, eadem, idem means ‘same.’ It is a variant of the third person pronouns that were declined earlier. Generally, they are formed by adding –dem to a declined third person pronouns. However, some forms have been changed to ease pronunciation.

Declension of numerals

See also: Romaumerals for symbology.

There are several different kinds of numeral words in Latin: the two most common are cardinal numerals, and ordinal numerals. There are also several more rare numerals such as distributive numerals and adverbial numerals

Cardinal numerals

All numerals, except ūnum (one), duo (two), tria (three), centum (one hundred), and mīlia (thousand, sing. mīlle) are indeclinable adjectives. Ūnus, ūna, ūnum is declined like a first and second declension adjective with an –īus in the genitive, and –ī in the dative. Duo is declined irregularly, and tria is declined like a third declension adjective.

It should be noted that ambō, “both”, is declined as duo is, though its o is long.

The word mīlle, is singular, an adjective and indeclinable. However, its plural, mīlia, is a plural 3rd declension I-stem neuter noun.

·        Note that to write the phrase “four thousand horses” in Latin, the genitive is used: “quattuor milia equōrum”, literally, “four thousands of horses”.

As stated before, the rest of the numbers are indeclinable adjectives. They are also indeclinable as substantives.

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals all decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives.

·        Primus = first

·        Secundus = second

·        Tertius = third

·        Vicensimus = twentieth

Note: “secundus” only means “second” in the sense of “following”. The adjective alter, -ra, -rum meaning “the other (of two)” was more frequently used in many instances that English would use “second”.

Ordinal numbers, not cardinal numbers, are commonly used to represent dates, because they are in the format of “in the tenth year of Caesar”, etc. which also carried over into the Anno Domini system and Christian dating, i.e. “anno post Christum natum centesimo”(also “centensimo”) = AD 100.

Distributive numerals

A rare numeral construction denoting an equal number distributed among several objects, e.g. “How many each?” “Two by two.” They decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives, and are logically always plural. Bis, Bina = “twice two”. A classical example would be “Uxores habent deni duo deniqui inter se communes” = “groups of ten or twelve men had wives in common” –Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar

Adverbial numerals

Adverbial numerals are (as the name states) indeclinable adverbs, but because all of the other numeral constructions are adjectives, they are listed here with them. Adverbial numerals give how many times a thing happened. Semel = once, Bis = twice, Ter = thrice (three times), Quater = four times, etc.

Adverbs and their comparisons and superlatives

Adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb.

First and second declension adjectives’ adverbs

First and second declension adjectives’ adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases.

Third declension adjectives’ adverbs

Typically, third declension adjectives’ adverbs are formed by adding an –iter onto their bases. However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add an –er to their bases.

Adverbs’ comparative and superlative forms

Adverbs’ comparative forms are their neuter adjectives’ comparative forms. Adverbs’ superlative forms are made in the same way in which first and second declension adjectives’ adverbs are made.

First and second declension adjectives’ adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases.

Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms

As so with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.

Peculiarities within declension

Irregularity iumber

Some nouns are only used in the singular, such as:

·        Materials such as aurum (gold) and aes (copper)

·        Abstract nouns such as celeritās (speed) and scientia (knowledge)

·        Proper names such as Iulius (Julius) and Clāra (Clara)

Some nouns are only used in the plural (plurale tantum) such as:

·        Many festivals, such as Saturnalia

·        Castra (camp) and arma (arms)

·        A few geographical names are plural such as Thēbae (Thebes).

Indeclinable nouns

Indeclinable nouns are neuter nouns which occur only in the nominative and the accusative singular. There are only six such nouns:

·        fās — fate, divine law

·        īnstar — likeness

·        māne — in the morning (arguably this occurs only in the ablative singular; also arguably it is an adverb rather than a noun) It is notable because it occurs in modern medical prescriptions.

·        nefās — sin, abomination

·        nihil / nil — nothing, none

·        secus – sex, coitus

Heterogeneous nouns

Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.

·        A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine. However, their meanings remain the same.

·        Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural. They may also change in meaning.

Plurals with alternative meanings

Nouns whose plural meaning is different from the singular meaning are called plūrālia tantum.

  

A complete Latin noun declension consists of up to seven grammatical cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative.

They are often abbreviated to the first three letters.

The sequence NOM-VOC-ACC-GEN-DAT-ABL has been the usual order taught in Britain and many Commonwealth countries since the publication of Hall Kennedy‘s Latin Primer (1866). It reflects the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings (see Syncretic trends below). For a discussion of other sequences taught elsewhere, see here. However, some schools teach it in the order NOM-GEN-DAT-ACC-ABL-VOC, as first given.

Meanings and functions of the various cases

·         The nominative case marks the subject of a statement and denotes the person or object that performs the action of the verb in the sentence. For example “Mary is going to the store” or “Mary is my sister”. It is also used for the predicate: “Mary is my sister“. The nominative singular (for adjectives, masculine nominative singular) is used as the reference form of the word.

·         The vocative case is used to address someone or something in direct speech. In English, this function is expressed by intonation or punctuation: “Mary, are you going to the store?” or “Mary!” (“Mary” is vocative).

·         The accusative case marks the direct object of a verb. It also has various other functions, eg it is governed by some prepositions.

·         The genitive case expresses possession, measurement, or source. Many of its uses correspond in English to uses of the preposition “of”, and in some situations to the English “possessive” case.

·         The dative case marks the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a verb. In English, the prepositions to and for frequently correspond to this case, though there are also many uses of these prepositions which do not correspond to the dative case.

·         The ablative case expresses separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In English, the prepositions by, with, from, in and on are most commonly used to indicate these meanings.

·         The locative case expresses the place where an action is performed. In early Latin the locative case had extensive use, but in Classical Latin the locative case was very rarely used, applying only to the names of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words. For this purpose, the Romans considered all Mediterranean islands to be “small”except for Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and Cyprus. Much of the case’s function had been absorbed into the ablative. In the singular first and second declension, the locative is identical to the genitive singular form, and in the singular third declension, the locative is identical to the ablative singular form. For plural nouns of all declensions, the locative is also identical to the ablative form. The few fourth and fifth declension place names would also use the ablative form for the locative case. However, a few nouns use the locative instead of a preposition: Domus → Domī (at home), Rūs → Rūrī (in the country), Humus → Humī (on the ground), Militia → Militiae (in military service, in the field), Focus → Focī (at the hearth; at the center of the community). In archaic times, the locative singular of third declensioouns was interchangeable between ablative and dative forms, but in the Augustan period, the use of the ablative form became fixed.

The same ending is often used for more than one case

Syncretism, where one form in a paradigm shares the ending of another form in the paradigm, is common in Latin. The following are the most notable patterns of syncretism:

·         The vocative form is the same as the nominative in both singular and plural, except for 2nd declension masculine nouns ending in -us and a few nouns of Greek origin. For example, the vocative of Aeneās is Aenea, although Aeneās is 1st declension.

·         The dative is always the same as the ablative in the plural, and in the singular in the 2nd declension, the 3rd declension full i-stems (i.e. neuter i-stems, adjectives), and 4th declensioeuters.

·         The genitive singular is the same as the nominative plural in 1st, 2nd, and 4th declension masculine and feminine nouns.

·         The dative singular is the same as the genitive singular in 1st and 5th declension nouns.

·         For neuter plural nouns, the nominative, vocative and accusative all always ends in -a (with a few exceptions: demonstrative hic and related istic and illic, relative/interrogative quīand related words; in all of these, the neuter plural takes the same form as feminine nominative singular).

·         The accusative singular ends in a short vowel plus -m, except for some neuters.

·         In masculines and feminines, the accusative plural ends in a long vowel plus -s; so does the nominative plural in the 3rd, 4th and 5th declensions.

·         The locative is identical to the ablative in the 4th and 5th declensions.

·         The dative, ablative and locative are identical in the plural.

History of cases

Old Latin had essentially two patterns of endings. One pattern was shared by the first and second declensions, with a clear similarity to the first and second declensions of Ancient Greek. The other pattern was used by the third declension and was very different from Greek, even for direct cognates. Wheew words were absorbed into Latin, they were generally placed in the third declension.

Nouns

There are five declensions for Latiouns:

First declension (a)

Nouns of this declension usually end in –a in the nominative singular and are mostly feminine, e.g. ‘road’ (via, viae fem.) and ‘water’ (aqua, aquae fem.). There is a small class of masculine exceptions generally referring to occupations, e.g. ‘farmer’ (agricola, agricolae masc.) and ‘sailor’ (nauta, nautae masc.).

The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is a. The nominative singular form consists of the stem and the ending -a, and the genitive singular form is the stem plus -ae.

 

First declension Greek nouns

The first declension also includes three types of Greek loanwords, derived from Ancient Greek’s Alpha Declension. They are declined irregularly in the singular, but are sometimes treated as if they were native Latiouns, e.g. nominative athlēta instead of the original athlētēs. Interestingly, archaic (Homeric) first declension Greek nouns and adjectives had been formed in exactly the same way as in Latin: nephelēgeréta Zeus (Zeus the cloud-gatherer) had in classical Greek become nephelēgerétēs.

For full paradigm tables and more detailed information, see the Wiktionary appendix First declension.

Second declension (o)

The second declension is a large group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine nouns like equus, equī (“horse”) and puer, puerī (“boy’) and neuter nouns like castellum, castellī(“fort”). There are several small groups of feminine exceptions, including names of gemstones, plants, trees, and some towns and cities.

In the nominative singular, most masculine nouns consist of the stem and the ending -us, although some end in -er, which is not necessarily attached to the complete stem. Neuter nouns generally have a nominative singular consisting of the stem and the ending -um. However, every second-declensiooun has the ending -ī attached as a suffix to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is o.

Masculine:

Neuter:

Nouns ending in -ius and -ium have a genitive singular in -ī in earlier Latin, which was regularized to -iī in the later language. Masculine nouns in -ius have a vocative singular in -ī at all stages. These forms in -ī are stressed on the same syllable as the nominative singular, sometimes in violation of the usual Latin stress rule. For example, the genitive and vocative singular Vergilī (from Vergilius) is pronounced [werˈɡiliː], with stress on the penult, even though it is short.

There is no contraction of -iī(s) in plural forms.

Second declension R nouns

Some masculine nouns of the second declension end in an –er or an –ir in the nominative singular. For such nouns, the genitive singular must be learned to see if the E is dropped. For example, socer, –erī keeps its E. However, the noun magister, –trī (“teacher”) drops its E in the genitive singular. Nouns with –ir in the nominative singular never drop the I.

The declension of second declension R nouns is identical to that of the regular second declension, with the exception of the vocative singular, which is identical to the nominative rather than ending in an -e.

For declension tables of second declensioouns, see the corresponding Wiktionary appendix.

Second declension Greek nouns

The second declension contains two types of masculine Greek nouns and one form of neuter Greek noun. These nouns are irregular only in the singular, as are their first declension counterparts. Greek nouns in the second declension are derived from the Omicron Declension.

Some Greek nouns may also be declined as normal Latiouns. For example, theātron can appear as theātrum.

Peculiarities

In the older language, nouns ending with –vus, –quus and –vum take o rather than u in the nominative and accusative singular.

The plural of deus (god, deity) is irregular.

The vocative singular of Deus is not attested in Classical Latin. In Ecclesiastical Latin the vocative is Deus.

In poetry, -um may be substituted for -ōrum as the genitive plural ending.

Third declension (i)

The third declension is the largest group of nouns. The nominative singular of these nouns may end in –a,–e, –ī, –ō, –y, –c, –l, –n, –r, –s, –t, or –x. This group of nouns includes masculine, neuter, and feminine nouns. Examples are flumen, fluminis neut. (“river”), flos, floris masc. (“flower”), and pax, pacis fem. (“peace”). Each noun has the ending -is as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. Masculine, feminine and neuter nouns each have their own special nominative singular endings. For instance, many masculine nouns end in an –or (amor). Many feminine nouns end in an –īx (phoenīx), and many neuter nouns end in an –us (onus).

¹ The nominative singular is formed in one of four ways: with -s, with no ending, or by one of these two with a different stem from the oblique cases. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular.

² The nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always identical. It should not be assumed that –en is always the appropriate ending, as it might appear above.

Third declension i-stem nouns

The third declension also has a set of nouns that are declined differently. They are called i-stems. I-stems are broken into two subcategories: pure and mixed. Pure I-stems are indicated by the parisyllabic rule or special neuter endings. Mixed I-stems are indicated by the double consonant rule.

·        Masculine & Feminine

·         Parisyllabic Rule: Some masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have the same number of syllables in the genitive as they do in the nominative. For example: amnis, –is. The nominative ends in -is.

·         Double-Consonant Rule: The rest of the masculine and feminine third declension i-stem nouns have two consonants before the –is in the genitive singular.For example:pars, partis

·        Neuter

·         Special Neuter Ending: Neuter third declension i-stems have no rule. However, all of them end in –al, –ar or –e. For example: animal, –ālis. This can be remembered with the help of the mnemonic involving a pirate named Al: “Al, ar’ e’ going pirating today?”

Pure I-stems may exhibit peculiar endings in both singular and plural. Mixed I-stems employ normal (consonant) 3rd declension endings in the singular but I-Stem endings in the plural. Note the alternative I-stem endings indicated in parentheses.

¹ The nominative singular is formed in one of four ways: with -s, with no ending, or by one of these two with a different stem from the oblique cases. The same is true of other forms that are the same as the nominative singular: the vocative singular and the neuter accusative singular.

The rules for determining I-stems from non-I-stems and “mixed” I-stems should be thought of more as “guidelines” than “rules”: even among the Romans themselves, the categorization of a 3rd declension word as an I-stem or non-I-stem was quite fluid. The result is that many words that should be I-stems according to the parisyllabic and consonant stem rules actually are not, such as canis or iuvenis. By the parisyllabic rule, “canis” should be a masculine I-stem and thus differ from the non-I-stems by having an extra -i- in the plural genitive form: “canium”. In reality, the plural genitive of “canis” is “canum”, the form of a non-I-stem. This fluidity even in Roman times results in much more uncertainty in Medieval Latin, as scholars were trying to imitate what was fluid to begin with.

Peculiarities

In the third declension, there are four irregular nouns.

Fourth declension (u)

The fourth declension is a group of nouns consisting of mostly masculine words such as fluctus, fluctūs (masc.) (“a wave”)’ and portus, portūs (masc.)(“a port”) with a few feminine exceptions, including manus, manūs (fem.) (“hand”). The fourth declension also includes several neuter nouns including genu, genūs (neut.)(“knee”). Each noun has the ending -ūsas a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form. The predominant letter in the ending forms of this declension is u.

In the dative and ablative plural, –ibus is sometimes replaced with –ubus. This is so for only a few nouns, such as artus, “the limbs”.

The declension of domus is irregular:

Fifth declension (e)

The fifth declension is a small group of nouns consisting of mostly feminine words like ‘affair, matter, thing’ (rēs, reī fem.) and ‘day’ (diēs, diēī usually masculine, except ootable days when it is feminine). Each noun has either the ending -ēī or –eī as a suffix attached to the root of the noun in the genitive singular form

Note that nouns ending in iēs have long ēī in the dative and genitive, while nouns ending in a consonant + ēs have short eī in these cases.

Pronouns

Relative and demonstrative pronouns are generally declined like first and second declension adjectives, with the following differences:

·        the nominatives are often irregular

·        the genitive singular ends in -īus rather than -ae or -ī.

·        the dative singular ends in -ī: rather than -ae or -ō.

These differences identify the “pronominal” declension, and a few adjectives follow this pattern. The vocative, where not shown, is the same as the nominative.

Personal pronouns

The first and second persons are irregular. They may be only masculine or feminine.

¹These pronouns are declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions to agree in number and case with the thing possessed.

Usually, to show the ablative of accompaniment, cum would be added to the ablative form. However, with personal pronouns and the interrogative (not with 3rd person), cum is added on to the end of the ablative form. For example: mēcum, nōbīscum, tēcum, vōbīscum and quōcum (sometimes quīcum).

The third person reflexive pronouns always refer back to the subject whether it be singular or plural.

¹This pronoun is declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions to agree iumber and case with the thing possessed.

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative pronouns are used strictly for asking questions. They are distinct from the relative pronoun and the interrogative adjective (which is declined like the relative pronoun). Interrogative pronouns rarely occur in the plural. The plural interrogative pronouns are the same as the plural relative pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives

hic, haec, hoc this, this one

ille, illa, illud that, that one

iste, ista, istud that of yours

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Nominative

hic

hī

haec

hae

hoc

haec

ille

illī

illa

Illae

illud

Illa

iste

istī

ista

istae

istud

ista

Vocative

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Accusative

hunc

hōs

hanc

hās

hoc

haec

illum

illōs

illam

Illās

illud

Illa

istum

istōs

istam

istās

istud

ista

Genitive

huius

hōrum

huius

hārum

huius

hōrum

illīus

illōrum

illīus

illārum

illīus

Illōrum

istīus

istōrum

istīus

istārum

istīus

istōrum

Dative

huic

hīs

huic

hīs

huic

hīs

illī

illīs

illī

Illīs

illī

Illīs

istī

istīs

istī

istīs

istī

istīs

Ablative

hōc

hīs

hāc

hīs

hōc

hīs

illō

illīs

illā

Illīs

illō

Illīs

istō

istīs

istā

istīs

istō

istīs

Intensive pronouns

Relative pronouns

Adjectives

First and second declension adjectives

First and second declension are inflected in the masculine, the feminine and the neuter; the masculine form typically ends in –us (although some end in -er, see below), the feminine form ends in –a, and the neuter form ends in –um. Therefore, adjectives are given like altus, alta, altum.

First and second declension –r adjectives

Some first and second declension adjectives’ masculine form end in an –er. As with second declensioouns –r nouns, some adjectives retain the e throughout inflection, and some omit it. Sacer, sacra, sacrum omits its e while miser, misera, miserum keeps it.

 

First and second –īus genitive adjectives

Nine first and second declension adjectives are irregular in the genitive and the dative in all genders. They can be remembered by using the mnemonic acronym UNUS NAUTA. They are:

ūllus, –a, –um; any
nūllus, –a, –um; no, none (of any)
uter, –tra, –trum; which (of two)
sōlus, –a, –um; sole, alone
neuter, –tra, –trum; neither (of two)
alius, –a, –ud; (gen. sing. alīus; another)
ūnus, –a, –um; one
tōtus, –a, –um; whole
alter, –era, –erum; the other (of two)

Third declension adjectives

Third declension adjectives are normally declined like third declension i-stem nouns, except for the fact they always have a –ī rather than an -e in the ablative singular (unlike i-stem nouns, in which only neuters have –ī). Some adjectives, however, like the one-ending vetus, veteris (old, aged), have an -e in the ablative singular (all genders), a -um in the genitive plural (all genders), and an -a in the nominative and accusative plural (neuter only).

Third declension adjectives with one ending

These have a single nominative ending for all genders, although as usual the endings for the other cases vary. As with nouns, a genitive is given for the purpose of inflection.

¹—may end in –īs
²—may end in –e

Third declension adjectives with two endings

Third declension adjectives that have two endings have one form for the masculine and feminine, and a separate form for the neuter. The ending for the masculine and feminine is –is, and the ending for the neuter is –e. Because the sexed form ends in an –is, we find the adjective genitive singular.

¹—may end in –īs

Third declension adjectives with three endings

Third declension adjectives with three endings have three separate nominative forms for all three genders. Like third and second declension –r nouns, the masculine ends in an –er. The feminine ends in an –ris, and the neuter ends in an –re. With that information, we come upon the genitive singular needed for inflection, the feminine form.

¹—may end in –īs

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives

As in English, adjectives have superlative and comparative forms. For regular first and second declension and third declension adjectives with one or two endings, the comparative is formed by adding an –ior for the masculine and feminine, and an –ius for the neuter to the base. The genitive for both are formed by adding an –iōris. Therefore, they are declined like the third declension. However, they are not declined as i-stems are. Superlatives formed by adding an –issimus, –a, –um to the base. Now, we find that superlatives are declined like first and second declension adjectives.

Comparatives and superlatives of –er adjectives

Adjectives (in the third and first and second declensions) that have masculine nominative singular forms ending in –er have different forms. If the feminine and neuter forms drop the E, use that for the comparative form. The superlative is formed by adding a –rimus onto the masculine form.

Comparatives and superlatives of –lis adjectives

Some third declension adjectives with two endings in –lis in the sexed nominative singular have irregular superlative forms. The following are the only adjectives that have this unique form.

Irregular comparatives and superlatives

As in most languages, Latin has adjectives that have irregular comparatives and superlatives.

·        1: noun used with genitive to express more of something

·        2: often replaced by the regular form ‘maturissimus, –a, –um’

·        3: indeclinable

Declension of īdem

The adjective īdem, eadem, idem means ‘same.’ It is a variant of the third person pronouns that were declined earlier. Generally, they are formed by adding –dem to a declined third person pronouns. However, some forms have been changed to ease pronunciation.

Declension of numerals

See also: Romaumerals for symbology.

There are several different kinds of numeral words in Latin: the two most common are cardinal numerals, and ordinal numerals. There are also several more rare numerals such as distributive numerals and adverbial numerals

Cardinal numerals

All numerals, except ūnum (one), duo (two), tria (three), centum (one hundred), and mīlia (thousand, sing. mīlle) are indeclinable adjectives. Ūnus, ūna, ūnum is declined like a first and second declension adjective with an –īus in the genitive, and –ī in the dative. Duo is declined irregularly, and tria is declined like a third declension adjective.

It should be noted that ambō, “both”, is declined as duo is, though its o is long.

The word mīlle, is singular, an adjective and indeclinable. However, its plural, mīlia, is a plural 3rd declension I-stem neuter noun.

·        Note that to write the phrase “four thousand horses” in Latin, the genitive is used: “quattuor milia equōrum”, literally, “four thousands of horses”.

As stated before, the rest of the numbers are indeclinable adjectives. They are also indeclinable as substantives.

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals all decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives.

·        Primus = first

·        Secundus = second

·        Tertius = third

·        Vicensimus = twentieth

Note: “secundus” only means “second” in the sense of “following”. The adjective alter, -ra, -rum meaning “the other (of two)” was more frequently used in many instances that English would use “second”.

Ordinal numbers, not cardinal numbers, are commonly used to represent dates, because they are in the format of “in the tenth year of Caesar”, etc. which also carried over into the Anno Domini system and Christian dating, i.e. “anno post Christum natum centesimo”(also “centensimo”) = AD 100.

Distributive numerals

A rare numeral construction denoting an equal number distributed among several objects, e.g. “How many each?” “Two by two.” They decline like normal 1st and 2nd declension adjectives, and are logically always plural. Bis, Bina = “twice two”. A classical example would be “Uxores habent deni duo deniqui inter se communes” = “groups of ten or twelve men had wives in common” –Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar

Adverbial numerals

Adverbial numerals are (as the name states) indeclinable adverbs, but because all of the other numeral constructions are adjectives, they are listed here with them. Adverbial numerals give how many times a thing happened. Semel = once, Bis = twice, Ter = thrice (three times), Quater = four times, etc.

Adverbs and their comparisons and superlatives

Adverbs are not declined. However, adverbs must be formed if one wants to make an adjective into an adverb.

First and second declension adjectives’ adverbs

First and second declension adjectives’ adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases.

Third declension adjectives’ adverbs

Typically, third declension adjectives’ adverbs are formed by adding an –iter onto their bases. However, most third declension adjectives with one ending simply add an –er to their bases.

Adverbs’ comparative and superlative forms

Adverbs’ comparative forms are their neuter adjectives’ comparative forms. Adverbs’ superlative forms are made in the same way in which first and second declension adjectives’ adverbs are made.

First and second declension adjectives’ adverbs are formed by adding an –ē onto their bases.

Irregular adverbs and their comparative and superlative forms

As so with adjectives, there are irregular adverbs with peculiar comparative and superlative forms.

Peculiarities within declension

Irregularity iumber

Some nouns are only used in the singular, such as:

·        Materials such as aurum (gold) and aes (copper)

·        Abstract nouns such as celeritās (speed) and scientia (knowledge)

·        Proper names such as Iulius (Julius) and Clāra (Clara)

Some nouns are only used in the plural (plurale tantum) such as:

·        Many festivals, such as Saturnalia

·        Castra (camp) and arma (arms)

·        A few geographical names are plural such as Thēbae (Thebes).

Indeclinable nouns

Indeclinable nouns are neuter nouns which occur only in the nominative and the accusative singular. There are only six such nouns:

·        fās — fate, divine law

·        īnstar — likeness

·        māne — in the morning (arguably this occurs only in the ablative singular; also arguably it is an adverb rather than a noun) It is notable because it occurs in modern medical prescriptions.

·        nefās — sin, abomination

·        nihil / nil — nothing, none

·        secus – sex, coitus

Heterogeneous nouns

Heterogeneous nouns are nouns which vary in respect to gender.

·        A few nouns in the second declension occur in both the neuter and masculine. However, their meanings remain the same.

·        Some nouns are one gender in the singular, but become another gender in the plural. They may also change in meaning.

Plurals with alternative meanings

Nouns whose plural meaning is different from the singular meaning are called plūrālia tantum.

 

 
Diphthongs

A diphthong is a combination of two vowels which are pronounced as one sound. There are four diphthongs ‘ae’ is pronounced as one sound [e], e.g.: costae (ribs);

‘oe’ is pronounced as [e], too e.g.: coena (dinner);

‘au’ is pronounced briefly as [av/au], e.g.: auris (ear);

‘eu’ is pronounced briefly as [ev/eu], e.g.: neuritis (neuritis).

If ‘ae’ and ‘oe’ do not form the diphthong, then two points are put above the second vowel, therefore it is pronounced separately, e,g.: aër (air), poëta (poet).

 

Letter Combinations

The letter combinations ‘ch’, ‘ph’, ‘th’, ‘rh’ are used only in words of Greek origin.

‘Ch’ is pronounced as Engi ish sound [h], e.g : chole; (bile);

‘Ph’ is pronounced as English sound [f , e.g.: typhus (typhus);

‘Rh’ is pronounced as English sound [r], e.g.: rhachltis (rachitis);

‘Th’ is pronounced as English sound [t , e.g.: thea (tea);

‘Sch’ is pronounced as [sh], e.g.: schola (school).

Note; Do not mix it with the English sound [S].

The letter combination ‘ngu’ is pronounced as [ngv] before a vowel but it is pronounced as [ngu] before sonant, e.g.: lingua (language), angulus (angle).

‘Su’ is pronounced as [su], e.g.: Sulfur (sulphur); but when it makes a syllable with the following vowel as [sv], e.g.: consuetude (habit).

‘ti’ is pronounced as [tsi] before a vowel, e.g.: solutio (solution).

After ‘s’, ‘t’, ‘x’ and before a consonant it is pronounced as [ti], e.g.: combustio (burn), tinctura (tincture)

 ‘Y’ in Words of Greek Origin

The letter ‘Y’ is used in words of Greek origin. You should pay attention to the following prefixes of Grreek origin which are most frequently used in medical terminology.

Prefixes of Greek Origin

dys- (indicates functional disorder), e.g.: dyspepsia (stomach disorder);

hyper-(very high), e.g.: hyperacusis (abnormally risen acuteness of hearing);

hypo- (very low), e.g.: hypotonia (diminished blood pressure);

syn-/sym- before ‘m’, ‘p’, ‘ph’ (joining), e.g.: symphysis (symphysis).

Roots of Greek Origin

hydr- (water), e.g.: Hydrophobia (fear of the water, hydrophobia);

oxy- (acute, very sharp), e.g.: oxydatio (oxidation), oxyopia (abnormally risen acuteness of vision).

 

LONG AND SHORT SYLLABLES. STRESS

Latin vowels are long and short. Long vowels are marked by a line over a vowel (e.g. a) and short vowels are marked by ‘-’ symbol (e.g. a). Long vowels were pronounced two times as long as short ones, that is a = a + a. The duration of a vowel sound is not important as Latin is not a spoken language, unless stress is concerned. To stress a Latin word correctly you should pay particular attention whether the second syllable is long or short.

The number of syllables in a Latin word corresponds to the number of vowels. Syllables are counted from the end of a word.

A syllable is long in 4 positions:

1. If it contains a diphthong (i.e. two vowels pronounced together to form one sound). A diphthong is always long: diaeta (diet).

2. If two or three consonants are preceded by a vowel: ligamentum (ligament); sinister (left).

3. If x or z are preceded by a vowel: reflexus (reflex), Oryza (rice).

4. If a syllable in a word has always been long. In this case you should put ‘—’ symbol over a vowel: vesica. (bladder), Urtica (nettle), cicatrix (cicatria).

A syllable is short in 4 positions:             •

1. If one vowel precedes another vowel: .fovea (fovea), deltoideus (deltoid).

2. If a vowel precedes h, ch, ph, rh, th: contraho (to contract), stomadius (stomach), philosofihus (philosopher), Bismuthum (bismuth).

3. If a vowel precedes b, d, g, p, t with gliding 1 or r: vertebra (vertebra);   anhydrus  (anhydrous),  quadruolex (quadruple), thermometrum (thermometer).

4. If a syllable in a word has always been short: lamina (lamina), organum (organ).

Stress

Usually the first syllable from the end of a word is not stressed. If a word consists of two or more syllables it is stressed either on the second or third syllable from the end. Syllables are counted from the end of a word, e.g.:                             

ar⁶-ti⁵-cu⁴-la³ ti²o¹.

A word is stressed on the second syllable from the end if it is long:

sinister, reflexus, vesica.

A word is stressed on the third syllable from the end if the second syllable is short: oesophagus, philosophus.

In disyllabic words the second syllable from the end is stressed:

aqua (water), nasus (nose).

 

Introduction To The Anatomical Terminology. Noun. General Information About Five Declensions Of Nouns

Anatomical terminology is taught according to the Parisiaomenclature (Parisiensia Nomina Anatomicd), which was adopted on the 3-d International Conference of Anatomists in Paris. Anatomical terms are formed by the Latin language, clinical terms are formed by the ancient Greek language and pharmaceutical terms are formed by both languages.

Nouns and adjectives are very important in anatomical terminology. The categories of nouns are:

Gender. In English a noun is said to be feminine when it is the name of a living thing of female sex; that is, gender iouns corresponds to sex in living things; so a masculine noun is the name of a living thing of male sex, and a feminine noun is the name of a living thing of female sex, e.g.:‘boy’ is masculine, ‘girl’ is feminine. In Latin this rule holds good: ‘puella’, a girl, is feminine; ‘puer’, a boy, is masculine. In English all other words are neuter. This is not so in Latin. This language gives gender to names of sexless things. ‘Insula’ (an island) in Latin is feminine, ‘murus’ (a wall) is masculine. The genders of Latiouns are called: masculine – genus mascullnum (m); feminine — genus femininum (f); neuter—genus neutrum (n).

Number: numerus singularis (sing.) numerus pluralis (plur.)

When a nouames one thing, we say it in singular, when it names more than one thing we say it in plural.

Case: Latin has different endings, which show the relationship of a noun to other words in a sentence. The noun so changed is said to be in a certain case.

The Nominative case (Nominativus) is used when the noun is the subject of the sentence.

The Genitive case (Genetivus) denotes possession. It is usually translated by ‘of and the noun. Thus ‘insulae’. Genitive case, means ‘of the island’.

The Dative case (Dativus) is usually translated by ‘to’ or ‘for’ and the noun.

The Accusative case (Accusativus) is usually dependent on a verb. It is used to express the direct object.

The Ablative case (Ablativus) is usually translated by ‘by’, ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘on’ or ‘in’ and the noun.

The Vocative case (Vocativus) is the case of the person addressed.

Thus, there are 6 cases in Latin. The Vocative case is not used in medical terminology.

Declension. A list of all the cases of a noun is called the declension of the noun. To decline a noun is to go through all its cases.

There are five different sets of inflections in Latin. According as the noun takes the first, second, third, fourth, fifth set we say it belongs to the first, second, third, fourth, fifth declension.

Each declension is distinguished by the way in which the nouns belonging to it form the genitive singular.

In a dictionary the forms of Latiouns are written down in the following succession: the full form of a noun in the Nominative case, comma, genitive inflection, gender, e.g.: aqua, ae/(water); medicus, i m (physician); cranium, i n (skull); homo, inis m (human being);

abscessus, us m (abscess); genu, us n (knee); facies, ei / (l.face, 2.surface). See the table ‘Case inflections of the nouns belonging to five declensions’.

Stem. The part in all nouns of any declension left after removing the inflection of the genitive singular is called the stem. E.g.: aqua, ae (aqu— is the stem);medicus, i (medic — is the stem); homo, inis (homin — is the stem); abscessus, us (abscess—is the stem).

A case always consists of a stem + inflection. To find the case of any noun you should get the stem and add the inflection that marks that case.

Pay particular attention to the stem of the nouns belonging to the third declension because most of them change the form of the Nominative case:

cavitas, atis (cavitat- is) – ‘cavitat’ is the stem

regio, on is (region – is) — ‘region’ is the stem

corpus, oris (corpor – is) — ‘corpor’ is the stem

Finding the stem of a noun is important to decline and form compound medical terms correctly.

Case inflections of the nouns belonging

to five declensions

 

Video on the Cases of Nouns – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fhP_fk2wNQ&list=PL31BB9444AD808715

 

Anatomical lexical minimum of nouns

The first declension

 

The second declension

 

  

 

The third declension

 

 

 

The fourth declension

 

 

 

 

The fifth declension

 

USEFUL MEDICAL SAYINGS AND APHORISMS

 

 

                

 

VIDEO LINKS ON THE TOPIC:

 

 

1.     Pronunciation of Latin Vowels – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LwtgvwJljto&feature=endscreen&NR=1

2.     Pronunciation of Latin Consonants – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWMU76hzUHw; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0oWWOJW3948&list=PL31BB9444AD808715

3.     Cases of Nouns – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fhP_fk2wNQ&list=PL31BB9444AD808715

4.     The Basic Nouns – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtoG22_IVWE

Why to learn Latin? – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm5BJZc8GI8