TYPES AND LEVELS nOF COMMUNICATION
Types & Levels of Communication
We communicate with one another on many different nlevels.
Because we do nnot have direct access to the thoughts and feelings of other people, we must rely non communication to convey messages to one another. There is more to ncommunication than simply using language to speak to one another. Communicatioexists on a number of levels and in a variety of forms.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the use of symbols ithe form of spoken words to transmit messages. Verbal communication is ncomplicated by the fact that language is arbitrary, meaning that words change nover time; ambiguous, meaning that many words lack clear-cut meanings; and abstract, nmeaning that words are not the phenomena to which they refer. Thus, nmiscommunication occurs when the meaning we attach to a word changes with time, nwhen a word lacks a clear-cut, precise meaning or when words are used that are ntoo general. For example, the word “love” is a very imprecise term; none person’s definition of love may differ substantially from another person’s.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication refers to the use of symbols nother than words to transmit messages. It includes gestures, body language, how nwe utter words, aspects of our environment that influence meaning and objects nsuch as jewelry, furniture and clothing that send people messages about nourselves. Research suggests that nonverbal communication constitutes anywhere betwee65 and 93 percent of all human communication. Just like words, nonverbal nsymbols are ambiguous. What is a polite gesture to one person may be considered nrude by another person. Certain forms of nonverbal communication may also have ndifferent meanings in different cultures. For example, direct eye contact is nappropriate in U.S. society but considered disrespectful in many Asiacountries.
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is also known as self-talk nor thinking, and refers to the ways we communicate with ourselves. We use nintrapersonal communication to plan our lives, rehearse scenarios before we act nthem out, and tell ourselves what to do or not do. The way we communicate with nourselves greatly affects our self-esteem. A person who tells himself, n”I’m so stupid” when he fails an exam will likely have poorer nself-esteem than someone who thinks, “I did really well on the previous nfour exams. I must have just been having an off day, and I’ll do better next ntime.”
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is the communication we nhave with other people. This type of communication varies from highly nimpersonal to extremely personal. The degree to which nwe communicate, or fail to communicate, with others influences how our relationships nwith them develop, continue or come to an end.
Public Communication
Public communication refers to public speeches that we ndeliver in front of audiences. Public communication serves three main purposes: nto entertain, to persuade and/or to inform. It is different from other forms of ninteraction in that it requires greater levels of planning and preparation othe part of the speaker and involves less direct interaction. Audience members nstill interact with the speaker via mostly nonverbal symbols, but there is a nlesser degree of give and take than there is in one-on-one conversations.
Mass Communication
Mass communication refers to any type of media that is nused to communicate with mass audiences. Examples of mass media include books, ntelevision, radios, films, computer technologies, magazines and newspapers. nAlthough mass communication does include certain computer technologies, it does nnot include technologies like email that are used to communicate one-on-one nwith someone. Mass communication is responsible for giving us views of events, nissues and people from cultures that differ from ours. It enables us to learwhat is going on in distant places in the world and lets us learn the nviewpoints of people and cultures with whom we do not nhave direct contact.
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The levels of communication are the following.. 1) INTRAPERSONAL nCOMMUNICATION- is language use or thought internal to the communicator. nIntrapersonal communication is the active internal involvement of the nindividual in symbolic processing of messages. The individual becomes his or nher own sender and receiver, providing feedback to him or herself in an ongoing ninternal process. It can be useful to envision intrapersonal communicatiooccurring in the mind of the individual in a model which contains a sender, nreceiver, and feedback loop. Although nsuccessful communication is generally defined as being between two or more nindividuals, issues concerning the useful nature of communicating with oneself nand problems concerning communication with non-sentient entities such as ncomputers have made some argue that this definition is too narrow. In Communication: The Social Matrix of nPsychiatry, Jurgen Ruesch nand Gregory Bateson argue that intrapersonal communication is indeed a special ncase of interpersonal communication, as “dialogue is the foundation for nall discourse.” Intrapersonal ncommunication can encompass:
Day-dreaming
Nocturnal dreaming, including and especially lucid ndreaming
Speaking aloud (talking to oneself), reading aloud, nrepeating what one hears; the additional activities of speaking and hearing (ithe third case of hearing again) what one thinks, reads or hears may increase nconcentration and retention. This is considered normal, and the extent to which nit occurs varies from person to person. The time when there should be conceris when talking to oneself occurs outside of socially acceptable situations.[1]
Writing (by hand, or with a wordprocessor, netc.) one’s thoughts or observations: the additional activities, on top of nthinking, of writing and reading back may again increase self-understanding n(“How do I know what I mean until I see what I say?”) and nconcentration. It aids ordering one’s thoughts; in addition it produces a nrecord that can be used later again. Copying text to aid memorizing also falls nin this category.
Making gestures while thinking: the additional nactivity, on top of thinking, of body motions, may again increase nconcentration, assist in problem solving, and assist memory.
Sense-making (see Karl Weick) ne.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols
Interpreting non-verbal communication (see Albert Mehrabian) e.g. gestures, eye contact
Communication between body parts; e.g. “My nstomach is telling me it’s time for lunch.”
2.)INTERPERSONAL nCOMMUNICATION-Interpersonal communication is defined by communication scholars niumerous ways, though most definitions involve participants who are ninterdependent on one another, have a shared history. Communication channels nare the medium chosen to convey the message from sender to receiver. nCommunication channels can be categorized into two main categories: Direct and nIndirect channels of communication. Direct channels are those that are obvious nand can be easily recognized by the receiver. They are also under direct ncontrol of the sender. In this category are the verbal and non-verbal channels nof communication. Verbal communication channels are those that use words isome manner, such as written communication or spoken communication. Non-verbal ncommunication channels are those that do not require silly words, such as ncertain overt facial expressions, controllable body movements (such as that nmade by a traffic police to control traffic at an intersection), color (red for ndanger, green means go etc), sound (sirens, alarms etc.). Indirect channels are nthose channels that are usually recognized subliminally or subconsciously by nthe receiver, and not under direct control of the sender. This includes nkinesics or body language, that reflects the inner nemotions and motivations rather than the actual delivered message. It also nincludes such vague terms as “gut feeling”, “hunches” or n”premonitions”. Channels means mode of communicating the messages. Participants is the communicators who are both senders and nreceivers. Context refers to the interrelated condition of communication. It nconsists of such factors as: physical Milieu n
Balance of interpersonal communication
The Johari window model focuses on the balance of interpersonal ncommunication. Interpersonal communication encompasses:
Speech ncommunication
Nonverbal communication
Unconscious ncommunication
summarizing
paraphrasing
listening
questioning
Initiating: Declaring one’s conversational intent and ninviting consent from one’s prospective conversation partner
Turn-taking: Managing the flow of information back and nforth between partners in a conversation by alternating roles of speaker and nlistener
Having good ninterpersonal communication skills support such processes as:
parenting
intimate relationship
management
selling
counseling
coaching
mentoring and co-mentoring, which is mentoring in groups
conflict management
Interpersonal ncommunication is the subject of a number of disciplines in the field of npsychology, notably Transactional analysis. 3.) GROUP COMMUNICATION- refers to nthe nature of communication that occurs in groups that are between 3 and 12 nindividuals. Small group communication generally takes place in a context that nmixes interpersonal communication interactions with social clustering. 4.) nPUBLIC COMMUNICATION- It’s at the heart of our economy, society, and politics. nStudios use it to promote their films. Politicians use it to get elected. nBusinesses use it to burnish their image. Advocates use it to promote social ncauses. It’s a field built on ideas and images, persuasion and information, nstrategy and tactics. No policy or product can succeed without a smart message ntargeted to the right audience in creative and innovative ways.
Communication
Communicatiois a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions nthrough speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a sender(encoder) encodes a message and then using a nmedium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and nafter processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply using a nmedium/channel.
Types of Communication
People communicate with each other in a number of ways nthat depend upon the message and its context in which it is being sent. Choice nof communication channel and your style of communicating also affects communication. So, there are nvariety of types of communication.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the the nform of communication in which message is transmitted verbally; communicatiois done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every ncommunication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. Iverbal communication remember the acronym KISS(keep it nshort and simple).
When we talk to others, we assume that others nunderstand what we are saying because we know what we are saying. But this is nnot the case. usually people bring their own attitude, nperception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier idelivering the right meaning.
So in order to deliver the right message, you must put nyourself on the other side of the table and think from your receiver’s point of nview. Would he understand the message? how it would nsound on the other side of the table?
Verbal Communication is further divided into:
Oral Communication
Written Communication
Oral Communication
In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It nincludes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, nradio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication, communication is ninfluence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Advantages of Oral communication are: It brings quick nfeedback. In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body nlanguage one can guess whether he/she should trust what’s being said or not.
Disadvantage of oral communication In nface-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is ndelivering, so this can be counted as a
Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are nused to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. Iwritten communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, nmemo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary n& grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.
Written Communication is most common form of ncommunication being used in business. So, it is considered core among business nskills.
Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee nmanuals, and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for ninternal communication. For communicating with external environment in writing, nelectronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, npostcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
Advantages of written communication includes: Messages ncan be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent. Written communication provide record for every message sent and cabe saved for later study. A written message enables receiver to fully nunderstand it and send appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages of written communication includes: nUnlike oral communication, Written communicatiodoesn’t bring instant feedback. It take more time icomposing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and nnumber of people struggles for writing ability.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of nwordless messages. We can say that communication other than oral and written, nsuch as gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, nis called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the nbody language of speaker.
Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting nthe message received. Often, nonverbal signals reflects nthe situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect nthe effectiveness of message.
Nonverbal communication have the following nthree elements:
Appearance nSpeaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics Surrounding: room nsize, lighting, decorations, furnishings
Body Language nfacial expressions, gestures, postures
Sounds Voice nTone, Volume, Speech rate
Types of nCommunication Based on Purpose and Style
Based on style and purpose, there are two maicategories of communication and they both bears their own characteristics. nCommunication types based on style and purpose are:
Formal Communication
Informal Communication
Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions nand principles are followed while communicating message. Formal communicatiooccurs in formal and official style. Usually professional settings, corporate nmeetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul nlanguage is avoided and correct pronunciation is required. Authority lines are nneeded to be followed in formal communication.
Informal Communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are nin contrast with formal communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is nestablished for societal affiliations of members in an organization and nface-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal ncommunication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually. informal communication is ndone orally and using gestures.
Informal communication, Unlike nformal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an organization, it nhelps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking ninformally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.
Communication (from Latin “communis“, nmeaning to share) is the activity of conveying information through the exchange nof thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, nor behavior.
Communication requires a sender, a message, and a nrecipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender’s nintent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur nacross vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the ncommunicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The ncommunication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message nof the sender.
Human communication
Human spoken and pictoral nlanguages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) nand the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word n”language” also refers to common properties of languages. Language nlearning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the nthousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which nenable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certaiproperties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line nbetween a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, nprogramming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily nrestricted to the properties shared by human languages. Communication is the nflow or exchange of information within people or group of people.
A variety of verbal and non-verbal means of ncommunicating exists such as body language, eye contact, sign language, haptic communication, chronemics, nand media such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writing.
Manipulative Communications was studied and reported nby Bryenton in 2011. These are intentional and nunintentional ways of manipulating words, gestures, etc. to “get what we nwant”, by demeaning, discounting, attacking or ignoring instead of nrespectful interaction. Sarcasm, criticism, rudeness and swearing are examples.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities nalso defines the communication to include the display of text, Braille, tactile ncommunication, large print, accessible multimedia, as well as written and plailanguage, human-reader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats nof communication, including accessible information and communicatiotechnology.
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication describes the process of nconveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Research shows that the nmajority of our communication is non verbal, also known as body language. Ifact, 63-93% of communication is non-verbal.[citatioeeded] Some of noverbal communication includes chronemics, haptics, gesture, body language or posture; facial nexpression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles, narchitecture, symbols infographics, and tone of voice nas well as through an aggregate of the above.
Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as nparalanguage. These include voice lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as nwell as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, nwritten texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial narrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions nin pictorial form.
Oral communication
Oral communication, while primarily referring to nspoken verbal communication, can also employ visual aids and non-verbal nelements to support the conveyance of meaning. Oral communication includes nspeeches, presentations, discussions, and aspects of interpersonal ncommunication. As a type of face-to-face communication, body language and choice ntonality play a significant role, and may have a greater impact upon the nlistener than informational content. This type of communication also garners nimmediate feedback.
Business communication
A business caflourish when all objectives of the organization are achieved effectively. For nefficiency in an organization, all the people of the organization must be able nto convey their message properly.[citatioeeded]
Written communication and its historical development
Over time the forms of and ideas about communicatiohave evolved through the continuing progression of technology. Advances include ncommunications psychology and media psychology; an emerging field of study. nResearchers divide the progression of written communication into three revolutionary nstages called “Information Communication Revolutions”.[citatioeeded] During the first stage, writtecommunication first emerged through the use of pictographs. The pictograms were nmade in stone, hence written communication was not yet nmobile.
During the second stage, writing began to appear opaper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. Common The third stage nis characterised by the transfer of informatiothrough controlled waves and electronic signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is nassigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. This nprocess, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonal nprocessing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, nand evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation.
Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved nthrough formulations, questions and answers, paraphrasing, examples, and nstories of strategic talk. Written communication can be clarified by planning nfollow-up talks on critical written communication as part of the every-day way nof doing business. A few minutes spent talking in the present will save nvaluable time later by avoiding misunderstandings in advance. A frequent method nfor this purpose is reiterating what one heard in one’s own words and asking nthe other person if that really was what was meant.
Effective Communication
Effective communication occurs when a desired effect nis the result of intentional or unintentional information sharing, which is ninterpreted between multiple entities and acted on in a desired way. This neffect also ensures the message is not distorted during the communicatioprocess. Effective communication should generate the desired effect and nmaintain the effect, with the potential to increase the effect of the message. Therefore, neffective communication serves the purpose for which it was planned or ndesigned. Possible purposes might be to elicit change, generate action, create nunderstanding, inform or communicate a certain idea or point of view. When the ndesired effect is not achieved, factors such as barriers to communication are nexplored, with the intention being to discover how the communication has beeineffective.
Barriers to effective human communication
Barriers to effective communication can retard or ndistort the message and intention of the message being conveyed which may nresult in failure of the communication process or an effect that is nundesirable. These include filtering, selective perception, informatiooverload, emotions, language, silence, communication apprehension, gender ndifferences and political correctness
This also includes a lack of expressing n”knowledge-appropriate” communication, which occurs when a persouses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a nsituation or environment that is not understood by the recipient.
Physical barriers
Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the nenvironment. An example of this is the natural barrier which exists if staff are located in different buildings or on different sites. nLikewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to nintroduce new technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another nfactor which frequently causes communication difficulties for an organization. nWhilst distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an environment nwhich is too hot or cold can all affect people’s morale and concentration, nwhich in turn interfere with effective communication.
System design
System design faults refer to problems with the structures nor systems in place in an organization. Examples might include aorganizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to nknow who to communicate with. Other examples could be inefficient or ninappropriate information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a nlack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to staff being nuncertain about what is expected of them.
Attitudinal barriers
Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of nproblems with staff in an organization. These may be brought about, for nexample, by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation with nemployees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or nrefusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees which nmay be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by ninsufficient training to enable them to carry out particular tasks, or just nresistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.
Ambiguity of words/phrases
Words sounding the same but having different meaning ncan convey a different meaning altogether. Hence the communicator must ensure nthat the receiver receives the same meaning. It is better if such words are navoided by using alternatives whenever possible.
Individual linguistic ability
The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate words icommunication can prevent the recipients from understanding the message. Poorly nexplained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. However, nresearch in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to nresearch when persuasion fails.
Physiological barriers
These may result from individuals’ personal ndiscomfort, caused—for example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing ndifficulties.
Presentation of information
Presentation of information is important to aid nunderstanding. Simply put, the communicator must consider the audience before nmaking the presentation itself and in cases where it is not possible the npresenter can at least try to simplify his/her vocabulary so that the majority ncan understand.
Nonhuman communication
Every information exchange between living organisms — ni.e. transmission of signals that involve a living sender and receiver can be nconsidered a form of communication; and even primitive creatures such as corals nare competent to communicate. Nonhuman communication also ninclude cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical ntransmissions between primitive organisms like bacteria and within the plant nand fungal kingdoms.
Animal communication
The broad field of animal communication encompasses nmost of the issues in ethology. Animal communicatiocan be defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the current or future nbehavior of another animal. The study of animal communication, called zoosemiotics (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, nthe study of human communication) has played an important part in the ndevelopment of ethology, sociobiology, and the study nof animal cognition. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the nanimal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st ncentury so far, a great share of prior understanding related to diverse fields nsuch as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and nlearning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, has beerevolutionized.
Plants and fungi
Communication is observed within the plant organism, ni.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or nrelated species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the nroot zone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizome bacteria, with nfungi and with insects in the soil. These parallel sign-mediated interactions nare governed by syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules, and are possible nbecause of the decentralized “nervous system” of plants. The original nmeaning of the word “neuron” in Greek is “vegetable fiber” nand recent research has shown that most of the intraorganismic nplant communication processes are neuronal-like. Plants also communicate via nvolatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behavior, nthus warning neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles to nattract parasites which attack these herbivores. In stress situations plants ncan overwrite the genomes they inherited from their parents and revert to that nof their grand- or great-grandparents.[citationeeded]
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their ngrowth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. nFungi communicate with their own and related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic ninteractions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and ninsects through semiochemicals of biotic origin. The semiochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a nspecific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic nmessages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react. This implies that nfungal organisms can differentiate between molecules taking part in biotic nmessages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situation. So far five ndifferent primary signalling molecules are known to ncoordinate different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, nmating, growth, and pathogenicity. Behavioral coordinatioand production of signalling substances is achieved nthrough interpretation processes that enables the organism to differ betweeself or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message nfrom similar, related, or non-related species, and even filter out n”noise”, i.e. similar molecules without biotic content.
Bacteria quorum sensing
Communication is not a tool used only by humans, nplants and animals, but it is also used by microorganisms like bacteria. The nprocess is called quorum sensing. Through quorum sensing, bacteria are able to nsense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly. This cabe seen in both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. This was first nobserved by Fuqua et al. in marine microorganisms like V. harveyi nand V. fischeri.
Communication cycle
Shannon and Weaver Model of nCommunication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo’s nSender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
The first major model for communication was introduced nby Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949 The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of nradio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three nprimary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a ntelephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the nreceiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. nShannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes nwith one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.
In a simple model, often referred to as the ntransmission model or standard view of communication, information or content n(e.g. a message iatural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) nfrom an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ nreceiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views ncommunication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of nthis model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. nSocial scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based non the following elements:
An information source, which nproduces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for ntransmission
A receiver, which ‘decodes’ (reconstructs) the message nfrom the signal.
A destination, where the nmessage arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels nof problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message nbe transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning n’conveyed’?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the nreceived meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by nstating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
In 1960, David Berlo nexpanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and ncreated the SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver nModel of communication separated the model into clear parts and has beeexpanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major ndimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), nchannel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to nwhom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also nindicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both ndesired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, ncommunication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice nand commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the nvarious manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the ngroup communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages nthat are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another persoor being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of informatiotransmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations betweesigns/expressions and their users) and
Semantic (study of nrelationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where nat least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of nsemiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores nautocommunication, including intrapersonal ncommunication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that nfollowed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social ninteractions.
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund n(2008) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of nthe transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously nengaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a nreceiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, nreferred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how nan individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message nwill be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which ninformation travels from one individual to another and this information becomes nseparate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communicatiois called a speech act. The sender’s personal filters and the receiver’s npersonal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, ncultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. nIn the presence of “communicatiooise” on the transmission channel n(air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus nthe speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this nencode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and ndecoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that nfunctions as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the very least, nsimilar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the nmodel, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual ndifficulties.
Theories of coregulation ndescribe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather nthan a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of nmedia to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different npossibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, nMcKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking nat the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties nstone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ‘Space Binding’. it made possible the transmission of written orders across nspace, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and ncolonial administration. The other is stone and ‘Time Binding’, through the nconstruction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generatioto generation, through this media they can change and shape communication itheir society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
Communicatiooise
In any communication model, noise is interference with nthe decoding of messages sent over a channel by an encoder. There are many nexamples of noise:
Environmental noise
Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as standing nnext to loud speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction site next to na classroom making it difficult to hear the professor.
Physiological-impairment noise
Physical maladies that nprevent effective communication, such as actual deafness or blindness npreventing messages from being received as they were intended.
Semantic noise
Different interpretations of nthe meanings of certain words. For nexample, the word “weed” can be interpreted as an undesirable plant nin a yard, or as a euphemism for marijuana.
Syntactical noise
Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as nabrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence.
Organizational noise
Poorly structured communication can prevent the nreceiver from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated ndirections can make the receiver even more lost.
Cultural noise
Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, nsuch as unintentionally offending a non-Christian person by wishing them a n”Merry Christmas”.
Psychological noise
Certain attitudes can also make communicatiodifficult. For instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus non the present moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper neffective communication.
Design and Organization of the CommunicatioMatrix
Seven Levels of Communication
Level I. nPre-Intentional Behavior
Level II. nIntentional Behavior
Level III. nUnconventional Communication
Level IV. nConventional Communication
Level V. nConcrete Symbols
Level VI. nAbstract Symbols
Level VII. Language
Level I. Pre-Intentional Behavior
Behavior is not nunder the individual’s own control, but it reflects his general state (such as ncomfortable, uncomfortable, hungry or sleepy). Caregivers interpret the nindividual’s state from behaviors such as body movements, facial expressions nand sounds. In typically developing children, this stage occurs between 0 and 3 nmonths of age.
Level II. Intentional Behavior Behavior nis under the individual’s control, but it is not yet used to communicate nintentionally. Caregivers interpret the individual’s needs and desires from nbehaviors such as body movements, facial expressions, vocalizations and eye ngaze. In typically developing children, this stage occurs between 3 and 8 nmonths of age.
Level III. Unconventional Communication
INTENTIONAL nCOMMUNICATION BEGINS HERE, AT LEVEL III
Unconventional pre-symbolic behaviors are used nintentionally to communicate. Communicative behaviors are pre-symbolic because nthey do not involve any sort of symbol; they are unconventional because they nare not socially acceptable for us to use as we grow older. Communicative nbehaviors include body movements, vocalizations, facial expressions and simple ngestures (such as tugging on people). In typically developing children, this nstage occurs between 6 and 12 months of age.
Level IV. Conventional Communication Conventional npre-symbolic behaviors are used intentionally to communicate. Communicative nbehaviors are pre-symbolic because they do not involve any sort of symbol; they nare conventional because they are socially acceptable and we continue to use nthem to accompany our language as we mature. The meanings of some gestures may nbe unique to the culture in which they are used. Communicative behaviors ninclude pointing, nodding or shaking the head, waving, hugging, and looking nfrom a person to a desired object. Note that many of these gestures (and nespecially pointing) require good visual skills and may not be useful for nindividuals with severe vision impairment. Some vocal intonations may also be used nat this stage. In typically developing children, this stage occurs between 12 nand 18 months of age.
Level V. Concrete Symbols
SYMBOLIC nCOMMUNICATION STARTS HERE, AT LEVEL V (symbols represent, or stand for, nsomething else)
Concrete symbols that physically resemble what they nrepresent, are used to communicate. Concrete symbols look like, feel like, move like or sound like what they represent. Concrete nsymbols include pictures, objects (such as a shoelace to represent shoe), niconic gestures (such as patting a chair to say sit down) and sounds (such as nmaking a buzzing sound to mean bee). Most individuals skip this stage and go ndirectly to Level VI. For some individuals concrete symbols may be the only ntype of symbol that makes sense to them; for others they may serve as a bridge nto using abstract symbols. Typically developing children use concrete symbols nin conjunction with gestures and words, generally between 12 and 24 months of nage, but not as a separate stage.
Level VI. Abstract Symbols Abstract symbols such as nspeech, manual signs, Brailled or printed words are nused to communicate. These symbols are abstract because they are NOT physically nsimilar to what they represent. They are used one at a time. In typically ndeveloping children, this stage occurs between 12 and 24 months of age.
Level VII. Language Symbols (concrete or abstract) are ncombined into two- or three-symbol combinations (‘want juice’, ‘me go out’), naccording to grammatical rules. The individual understands that the meaning of nsymbol combinations may differ depending upon how the symbols are ordered. Itypically developing children, this stage begins around 24 months of age.
Different Types of Communication Systems
A thought kept in the brain is of no use unless and nuntil it is shared with other individuals and rest of the world. The idea, no nmatter however brilliant it is, must come out for its successful implementatiofor it to benefit one and all. It is the prime responsibility of the individual nto share his thoughts and ideas with others.
How is it possible? How can one share his ideas and nthoughts?
The communication system enables the successful ntransmission of idea or any other important information among individuals. The nperson from whom the thought originates carefully encodes his ideas into a nsensible content which is now ready to be shared with everyone. He is commonly nreferred to as the sender and the other party who receives the information from nhim is called the receiver or the recipient. The free flow of informatiobetween the sender and the receiver takes place because of the communicatiosystem.
The flow of information can be between two nindividuals. The information can flow from the individual to a machine, from nthe machine to the individual and even between two machines. Machines coupled ntogether through networks also provide signals for the individuals to respond, nthus a type of communication system. In the above cases all the machines must nwork on similar lines and patterns, must be technically compatible and has to nprovide the same information, so that the individuals can decode the ninformation well.
Let us study the various types of communication system nfor the smooth flow of information between two parties.
Optical Communication System
The word “Optical” stands for light. As the name nitself suggests, optical communication system depends on light as the medium nfor communication. In an optical communication system the transmitter converts nthe information into an optical signal (signal in the form of light) and nfinally the signal then reaches the recipient. The recipient then decodes the nsignal and responds accordingly. In optical communication system, light helps nin the transmission of information. The safe landing of nhelicopters and aeroplanes work on the above nprinciple. The pilots receive light signals from the base and decide ntheir next movements. On the roads, red light communicates the individual to nimmediately stop while the individual moves on seeing the green light.
In this mode of communication light travels through the noptical fibre.
Radio Communication System
In the radio communication system the informatioflows with the help of a radio. Radio communication system works with the aid nof a transmitter and a receiver both equipped with an antenna.
The transmitter with the help of an antenna produces nsignals which are carried through radio carrier wave. The receiver also with nthe help of an antenna receives the signal. Some information is unwanted and nmust be discarded and hence the electronic filters help in the separation of nradio signals from other unwanted signals which are further amplified to aoptimum level Finally the signals are decoded in an information which can be neasily understood by the individuals for them to respond accordingly.
Duplex communications system
In Duplex communications system two equipments cacommunicate with each other in both the directions simultaneously and hence the nname Duplex. When you interact with your friend over the telephone, both of you ncan listen to each other at the same time. The sender sends the signals to the nreceiver who receives it then and there and also give his valuable feedback to nthe speaker for him to respond. Hence the communication actually takes place nbetween the speaker and the receiver simultaneously.
In the Duplex communication system, two devices cacommunicate with each other at the same time.
A type of communication system involves the sender and nthe receiver where the sender is in charge of sending signals and the nrecipients only listen to it and respond accordingly. Such communication is nalso called Simplex communication system.
Half Duplex Communication System
In half Duplex communication system, both the two nparties can’t communicate simultaneously. The sender has to stop sending the nsignals to the recipient and then only the recipient can respond.
A walkie talkie works on the nhalf duplex communication system. The military personnel while interacting has nto say “Over” for the other person to respond. He needs to speak the security ncode correctly for the other person to speak. The other party will never ncommunicate unless and until the code is correct and complete.
Tactical Communication System
Another mode of communication is the tactical mode of ncommunication. In this mode of communication, communication varies according to nthe changes in the environmental conditions and other situations.
